Dictionary:

Netherlands

  (nĕTH'ər-ləndz) (Often called Holland (hŏl'ənd))

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Netherlands

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A country of northwest Europe on the North Sea. Inhabited by Germanic tribes during Roman times, the region passed to the Franks (4th–8th century), the Holy Roman Empire (10th century), the dukes of Burgundy (14th–15th century), and then to the house of Hapsburg. The northern part of the region formed the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and achieved its independence as the United Provinces in 1648 after the Thirty Years' War. In the 17th century the country enjoyed great commercial prosperity and expanded its territories in the East and West Indies and elsewhere. The kingdom of the Netherlands, proclaimed at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), included Belgium until 1830. Amsterdam is the constitutional capital and the largest city; The Hague is the seat of government. Population: 16,600,000.

Country, northwestern Europe. Area: 16,034 sq mi (41,528 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 16,300,000. Capital: Amsterdam. Seat of government: The Hague. Most of the people are Dutch. Languages: Dutch (official), English. Religions: Christianity (Roman Catholic, Protestant); also Islam. Currency: euro. The Netherlands' southern and eastern region consists mostly of plains and a few high ridges; its western and northern region is lower and includes polders on the site of the Zuiderzee and the common delta of the Rhine, Meuse, and Schelde rivers. Coastal areas are almost completely below sea level and are protected by dunes and artificial dikes. Although densely populated, the country has a low birthrate. Its developed market economy is based largely on financial services, light and heavy industries, and trade. It is a constitutional monarchy with a parliament comprising two legislative houses; its chief of state is the monarch, and the head of government is the prime minister. Celtic and Germanic tribes inhabited the region at the time of the Roman conquest. Under the Romans trade and industry flourished, but by the mid-3rd century AD Roman power had waned, eroded by resurgent Germanic tribes and the encroachment of the sea. A Germanic invasion (406 – 407) ended Roman control. The Merovingian dynasty followed the Romans but was supplanted in the 7th century by the Carolingian dynasty, which converted the area to Christianity. After Charlemagne's death in 814, the area was increasingly the target of Viking attacks. It became part of the medieval kingdom of Lotharingia (see Lorraine), which avoided incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire by investing its bishops and abbots with secular powers, leading to the establishment of an Imperial Church. Beginning in the 12th century, much land was reclaimed from the sea as dike building occurred on a large scale; Flanders developed as a textiles centre. The dukes of Burgundy gained control in the late 14th century. By the early 16th century the Low Countries came to be ruled by the Spanish Habsburgs. The Dutch had taken the lead in fishing and shipbuilding, which laid the foundation for Holland's remarkable 17th-century prosperity. Culturally, this was the period of Jan van Eyck, Thomas à Kempis, and Desiderius Erasmus. Calvinism and Anabaptist doctrines attracted many followers. In 1581 the seven northern provinces, led by Calvinists, declared their independence from Spain, and in 1648, following the Thirty Years' War, Spain recognized Dutch independence. The 17th century was the golden age of Dutch civilization. Benedict de Spinoza and René Descartes enjoyed the intellectual freedom, and Rembrandt and Johannes Vermeer painted their masterpieces. The Dutch East India Co. secured Asian colonies, and the country's standard of living soared. In the 18th century Dutch maritime power declined; the region was conquered by the French during the French revolutionary wars and became the Kingdom of Holland under Napoleon (1806). The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I and declared neutrality in World War II but was occupied by Germany. After the war it lost the Netherlands Indies (Indonesia from 1949) and Netherlands New Guinea (in 1962; now Irian Jaya). It joined NATO in 1949 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community (later renamed the European Community and now embedded in the European Union). At the outset of the 21st century The Netherlands benefitted from a strong, highly regulated mixed economy but struggled with the social and economic challenges of immigration.

For more information on The Netherlands, visit Britannica.com.

Photography was introduced to the Dutch public on 1 March 1839, in an anonymous article in the Algemeene Konst-en Letterbode. Since that time, the Netherlands has developed a lively tradition, one that was and is representative of photographic and artistic movements throughout Europe. The history of this tradition, while thoroughly documented at home, has been largely neglected in the mainstream English, French, and German photohistories.

Typically for the 19th century, Dutch photographic activity was concentrated in the cities. Local and foreign photographers recorded the sights of Amsterdam, The Hague, Haarlem, and Rotterdam from the very earliest days of photography. In 1855, the first photographic exhibition, the Exhibition of Photography and Heliography, was mounted at the Amsterdam gallery Maatschappij Arti et Amicitiae. More than 40 Dutch and international photographers exhibited daguerreotypes and photographs on paper.

One of these was Pieter Oosterhuis (1816-85), trained as a painter but already making daguerreotypes by 1853. He, and later colleagues like Julius Perger (1840-1924) and Johann Georg Hameter (1838-85), soon turned to collodion on glass, taking stereo and topographical city views as well as portraits. Vues de Hollande, published by Oosterhuis in the early 1860s, is a representative example of the tradition of topographical views of cities like Scheveningen, Utrecht, and Amsterdam promoted by these photographers. Although such views were enjoyed by Dutch audiences, they were more frequently sought by collectors throughout Europe. Amsterdam and Rotterdam were common destinations for French, British, and eventually American photographers, who fostered an interchange of information on photographic techniques and philosophies with practitioners in the Netherlands.

As in other countries, Dutch photography in the second half of the 19th century was dominated by the rise of the portrait studio, the proliferation of scientific and commercial applications of the medium, and eventually the spread of pictorialism. It was not until the turn of the 20th century that Dutch photography's status changed, and photographers organized themselves into groups and associations. Artists like Georg Hendrik Breitner and Willem Witsen (1860-1923) practised photography but continued to consider themselves as painters, and their photographs merely as studies. This attitude was finally to change in 1908, when the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam mounted the first Dutch museum exhibition devoted to international and national photography. The Tentoonstelling van Foto-kunst included not only influential foreign photographers, but native pictorialists like Bernard Eilers (1878-1951) and Henri Berssenbrugge. These photographers were influenced both by British writing from the 1880s but also strongly by the style and traditions of the Hague school of realist painting. Though not quite complete, the acceptance of photography into Holland's long pictorial tradition was assured.

In the 20th century, Dutch photography developed a strong social and political documentary style fostered by the two world wars. It also formed close ties with the German avant-garde. Piet Zwart (1885-1977) joined the Ring Neuer Werbegestalter, the ‘New Ring’ that advocated the use of radical design in advertising, and Moholy-Nagy helped to edit the Internationale Revue i 10 for two years (1927-9). Modern photography by Gerrit Kiljan (fl. 1930s), Paul Schuitema (1897-1973), and Jan Kamman (1898-1993) as well as Piet Zwart rendered the Netherlands photographic scene as vibrant as that of any of its neighbours at this time. While the avant-garde tradition flourished, so did documentary photography, made internationally famous by the films and photographs of Ed van der Elsken. Koen Wessing (b. 1942) and Marrie Bot (b. 1946) continue this tradition. (The history of Dutch photography during the German occupation remains to be studied in detail, but the underground images made in the period have attracted increasing interest.)

The diversity of Dutch photography and its links with international movements continue in the 21st century. Conceptual artists like Jan Dibbits (b. 1941), Ger van Elk (b. 1941), and Paul den Hollander (b. 1950) pushed conceptual photography to great lengths through the 1970s and 1980s. They have been joined by increasing numbers of internationally influential artists, Rineke Dijkstra, Bertien van Manen (b. 1942), Hellen van Meene (b. 1972), and Ad van Denderen (b. 1943), who have formed a photographic aesthetic unique to the Netherlands.

— Kelley E. Wilder

Bibliography

• Leijerzapf, I. (ed.), Fotografie in Nederland 1839-1920 (1978).
• Bool, F., and Broos, K. (eds.), Fotografie in Nederland, 1920-1940 (1979).
• Leijerzapf, I. (ed.), Roots + Turns: 20th Century Photography in the Netherlands (1988).
• Bool, F., and Hekking, V., Die illegale Camera 1940-1945: Nederlandse fotografie tijdens de Duitse bezetting (1995)

The development of theatrical dance in the Netherlands has historically centred on Amsterdam. The first ballet performances took place there in 1642 and 1645 (Ballet of the Five Senses). The first Amsterdam-based choreographer of note was Pietro Nieri whose most famous ballet was Peasant Life (1762). In the 19th century romantic ballet took hold through the choreographer Piet Grieve, whose most important work was The Golden Magic Rose or Harlequin Freed from Slavery (1819). Andries Voitus van Hamme (1828-68) made 115 three-act ballets for his own company of 60 dancers; his son, Anton, was also an active choreographer (1871-87). But after 1890 ballet found itself reduced to a role as an appendix to the opera and there was little in the way of local creativity. There were visiting stars, however, including Fuller, Duncan, and Pavlova, although home-grown modern dancers found a much smaller audience. In 1941 the Ballet of the Amsterdam Stadsschouwburg became an influential organization in the development of dance in the country. After the Second World War companies like the Scapino Ballet and the Netherlands Opera Ballet and the Ballet der Lage Landen (the latter two united in 1959 as the Amsterdam Ballet) began to put the country on the ballet map. In 1954 Sonia Gaskell established the Netherlands Ballet, out of which eventually emerged Dutch National Ballet in 1961. Only two years earlier, a group of breakaway dancers had left her company to found the Netherlands Dance Theatre in The Hague. Today the most important companies in the country are Dutch National Ballet, Netherlands Dance Theatre, and the Scapino Ballet.

Interest in psychoanalysis within Holland developed from 1905 onward and came from three different sources. The first source consisted of psychiatrists who were struck by Freud's studies on dreams. August Stärcke corresponded with Freud and J. van Emden had an analysis with him during a holiday in Karlsbad in 1911. Both became members of the Viennese Society in 1911. The second source came from psychiatrists who went to Jung in Zürich for analysis between 1911 and 1913. The third source was Leiden University. Jelgersma's rectorial address in 1914 at Leiden University was the first official recognition of psychoanalytic science in Europe. Thirteen representatives of these three groups, Freudians, Jungians and theoretical university analysts, founded the Dutch Society of Psychoanalysis on March 24, 1917. It was the seventh branch society of the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), formed with the goal of supporting the development of psychoanalysis according to Sigmund Freud. The Sixth IPA Congress took place in The Hague in 1920, chosen (because of Dutch neutrality during World War I) to facilitate the reunion of analysts who had been territorial enemies.

After that, however, there followed a period of quarreling and lessened productivity, which was partly due to the diversity of the members. The main points of controversy were the question of lay analysis—until 1938 only medical doctors were admitted—and the introduction of the tripartite training system, especially the obligation of personal analysis, introduced by Max Eitingon and Hanns Sachs in 1925 for all IPA branch societies. The conflict was mainly between the Society's president, Van Ophuijsen, who defended both lay analysis and the tripartite training model (he was treasurer and later vice-president of the IPA), and the theoretically-oriented psychiatrists of the university and Van Ophuijsen's former analysand Westerman Holstijn. The conflicts escalated and led to a split when in 1933 four Jewish analysts emigrated from Germany to Holland: Karl Landauer, Theodor Reik, Levy-Sühl and Watermann. The poorly-trained Dutch analysts, with lesser income from analytic practice, felt threatened by the arrival of four more competent analysts. A few expressed their panic in open anti-Semitism. Most were not anti-Semitic but refused to accept the refugees as members of the Society. Van Ophuijsen, however, saw a possibility to improve the quality of psychoanalysis in Holland with the help of the refugees and arranged Landauer's participation in his psychoanalytic institute (founded in 1930 in The Hague). In the resulting uproar by the members Van Ophuijsen resigned as president and member and founded, with Van Emden, Maurits Katan and a few others, a new society, the Society of Psychoanalysts in the Netherlands, of which the German immigrants became members. In the years to come the diplomatic analyst Westerman Holstijn put much energy in the reconciliation of the two societies, which succeeded in 1937. However, he himself resigned as a member, badly hurt by the lack of appreciation of his colleagues.

In 1938, after the Anschluss of Austria, Jeanne Lampl-de Groot and Hans Lampl came from Vienna to Amsterdam. Jeanne de Groot, a Dutch psychiatrist, had gone to Vienna in 1923 for analytic training with Freud and in 1925, after her marriage with Hans Lampl, to Berlin. In 1933 they had returned to Vienna. In Holland they started to reform the training program according to Viennese standards in cooperation with the members Le Coultre and Maurits Katan. Both the tripartite training model and lay analysis were accepted.

In May 1940 Holland was occupied by the Germans. When in November 1940 Jews had to resign as society members by German law, the non-Jewish psychoanalysts resigned as well in an act of solidarity and the Society virtually ceased to exist. Psychoanalytic training was organized underground with only two analysts functioning: Jeanne Lampl-deGroot and Le Coultre. In November 1945 the Society was refounded.

In 1946 some members founded the Psychoanalytical Institute (PAI), an ambulatorium where patients could come for psychoanalytic treatment at limited cost by candidates who earned a small fee. The house of the PAI became and as of 2005, still is the center of training, where, among other things, seminars are held and scientific meetings organized.

In 1947 Westerman Holstijn and Van der Hoop, who both had left the Society in discontent, founded with others the Dutch Psychoanalytical Association. Initially, the Association was meant to be a forum where one could discuss psychoanalysis in a free atmosphere without the stress of training. Soon, however, a training program was organized, though with much milder requirements than those of the Society. Training analyses were performed at low frequency and for a short period. During the first twenty-five or thirty years of its existence, the relationship between Society and Association varied from non-existent to very bad. Three successive presidents of the Association; Jan Groen, Poslavsky, and Stufkens, managed to raise the quality of training gradually to IPA level, coinciding with a much more friendly cooperation with the Society. The societies share an increasing number of mutual members. In 1983 the Association founded its own institute in Utrecht, the PIU. The psychoanalytic institutes of Society and Association fused into the Dutch Psychoanalytic Institute (NPI) in 1995, which serves the candidates of both societies. It is expected that the Association will be a component society of the IPA in the near future.

From 1945 until roughly 1970 psychoanalysis blossomed in Holland. The number of candidates steadily increased; there were more patients for analysis than could be treated; there was an active scientific life. Three IPA congresses were organized in Amsterdam, in 1951, 1965 and 1993. Van der Leeuw became vice-president of the IPA in 1963 and president from 1965-1969. Montessori was secretary from 1965-1969 and vice-president after that until 1975. Lampl-deGroot was honorary vice-president from 1963 until her death in 1987. Several Dutch held an office in the European Psychoanalytical Federation: Thiel and Dalewijk as vice-president, Mekking as treasurer, and Groen-Prakken as president.

In 1966 a child-analytic training was organized within the Society by Teuns, with great support of especially Frijling-Schreuder through many years to come. Teachers from the Hampstead clinic came to Leiden or Amsterdam for theoretical and technical seminars and supervision. Also in 1966 the government decided to subsidize psychoanalytical treatments as far as the patient could not afford the treatment himself. In 1980 therapies at the Institutes for mental health, including the analytic Institutes, became virtually free from payment. The important chairs in psychiatry, child psychiatry and clinical psychology at the universities were mainly occupied by psychoanalysts.

Over the course of the 1980s there was a decline in interest in psychoanalysis, as in most western communities. In Holland, the growing grip of the authorities on psychoanalytic practice, the near-disappearance of private practice, and the replacement of psychoanalytically-oriented university teachers by biologically oriented ones were important factors. The same period, however, saw a mounting interest in the application of psychoanalysis to other fields. In 1979 the analytic societies founded together the Dutch Society for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy and in 1989 the Foundation for Psychoanalysis and Culture was established, by the analysts Baneke and De Jong and the scientists in literature Schönau and Hillenaar, to connect psychoanalytical with general cultural experience. The annual workshops, organized by the Association, to introduce modern analytic views to a wide audience of psychotherapists are always overbooked.

Traditionally, the Dutch have been tradesmen for many centuries. They played an active role also in the export of psychoanalytic knowledge to Germany in the first period after the war, and in the late twentieth century to some former Soviet satellite countries: Prague first, and from 1994 onward, to Romania and Lithuania, where regular seminars are organized.

Four main scientific threads have developed, mostly after 1945. From the predominantly ego-psychological orientation after 1938 a continuous trend emerged to integrate drive- and ego- psychology with observations on narcissistic development and pathology (Lamplde Groot, Le Coultre, Van der Leeuw, Spanjaard, Treurniet). Many analysts from before the war already came from Child Guidance Clinics. The direct observation and treatment of neurotic and psychotic children has led to a mutual influence of adult and child psychoanalysis and to the use of psychoanalytical approaches in prevention of childhood disorders (Frijling-Schreuder, Kamp, Van Waning). The Dutch training programs are founded upon integrated child and adult theoretical seminars. In the third place there was and is a vivid exchange between psychoanalysis and the adult psychiatric clinic (Kuiper, De Blécourt, Van Tilburg). The fourth mainstream is centered around the aftermath of war in the first, second, and the contemporary generation (Keilson, De Wind, Jacques Tas, Louis Tas, De Levita, Bruggeman). Among the solitary theoreticians in the widened scope of psychoanalysis, De Jonghe, Ladan, Stufkens, and Bögels should be mentioned.

Regularly, textbooks and analytic books on a specific topic are published in Dutch. In 1978 Keilson published his long-term investigation on Jewish war orphans in Germany, Sequentielle Traumatisierung bei Kindern (now translated into English). In 1985 the collected papers by Lampl-de Groot were published in English titled Man and Mind. In 1991 Halberstadt-Freud published Freud, Proust, Perversion and Love. In 1993, at the thirty-eighth IPA congress in Amsterdam, Dutch Art and Character, a Psychoanalytic View was edited by Baneke and others. In 1993 and 1995 two volumes of the Dutch Annual of Psychoanalysis appeared, edited by Ladan, Groen-Prakken, and Stufkens, and in 1996, on the occasion of a celebration of Treurniet, Psychoanalysis in a Post-Classical Context was published, edited by Groen-Prakken and featuring Treurniet's article "On an Ethic of Psychoanalytic Technique," alongside papers by foreign and Dutch friends.

Bibliography

Brinkgreve, Christien. (1984). Psychoanalyse in Nederland. Een vestigingsstrijd. Amsterdam: Arbeiderspers.

Bulhof, Ilse N. (1983). Freud en Nederland. Baarn: Ambo.

Freud, Sigmund. (1914d). On the history of the psychoanalytic movement. SE, 14: 1-66.

——. (1974a). The Freud/Jung letters: The correspondence between Sigmund Freud and C. G. Jung (William McGuire, Ed.; Ralph Manheim and R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.

Groen-Prakken, Han. (1993). The psychoanalytical society and the analyst, with special reference to the history of the Dutch Psychoanalytical Society 1917-1947. In Dutch Annual of Psychoanalysis, 1993 (p. 13-37). Amsterdam-Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.

—HAN GROEN-PRAKKEN

Constitutional monarchy in northwestern Europe, bordered by the North Sea to the west and north, Germany to the east, and Belgium to the south. Amsterdam is the constitutional capital, and The Hague is the seat of the government. The Netherlands are also popularly known as Holland, after a region of the country.

• Half of the country lies below sea level. Much of this land has been reclaimed from the North Sea and is protected by dikes and irrigated by an intricate system of canals.
• During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, The Netherlands established a powerful commercial and colonial empire. The Dutch Empire included the settlement of New Amsterdam, which later became New York, and the conquest of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).
• The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries also saw a flowering of Dutch painting by masters such as Rembrandt.
• During World War II, Germany invaded and occupied The Netherlands, exterminating most Dutch Jews. (See Anne Frank.)

The international dialing code for Netherlands is:   31

Local Time: Jul 19, 9:31 AM

Local Time: Jul 19, 9:31 AM

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For general early occultism among German peoples, see the entry Teutons.

Spiritualism

Spiritualism was introduced into Holland in about 1857. The first Dutch Spiritualist on record is J. N. T. Marthese, who, after studying psychic phenomena in foreign countries, finally returned to his native Holland, taking with him the American medium D. D. Home. The latter held séances at The Hague before several learned societies, and by command of Queen Sophia a séance was given in her presence. The medium himself, in an account of the performance, stated that the royal lady was obliged to sit seven séances on consecutive evenings before any results were obtained. These results, however, were apparently satisfactory, for the queen was thereafter a staunch supporter of the movement.

During Home's visit Spiritualism gained a considerable following in Holland and the practice of giving small private séances became fairly widespread. Allegedly, spirit voices were heard at these gatherings, the touch of spirit hands was felt, and musical instruments were played by invisible performers.

Séances held at the house of J. D. van Herwerden in The Hague were particularly notable and were attended by many enthusiastic students of the phenomena. Van Herwerden recruited a 14-year-old Javanese boy of his household as the medium. The manifestations ranged from spirit rapping and table turning in the earlier séances to direct voice, direct writing, levitation, and materializations in later ones. The séances were described in van Herwerden's book Ervaringen en Mededeeling op een nog Geheimzinnig Gebied and took place between 1858 and 1862. One of the principal spirits purported to be a monk, Paurellus, who was assassinated some 300 years previously in that city. Afterward van Herwerden was induced by his friends to publish his diary, under the title Experiences and Communications on a Still Mysterious Territory.

For a time Spiritualist séances were conducted only in family circles and were of a private nature. But as the attention of intellectuals became more and more directed to the new phenomenon, societies were formed to promote research. Oromase, or Ormuzd, the first of these societies, was founded in 1859 by Major J. Revius, a friend of Marthese's, and included among its members many people of high repute. They met at The Hague, and the records of their transactions were carefully preserved. Revius was president until his death in 1871. He was assisted by the society's secretary, A. Rita. They assembled a fine collection of works on Spiritualism, mesmerism, and kindred subjects.

Another society, the Veritas, was founded in Amsterdam in 1869. The studies of this association were conducted in a somewhat less searching and scientific spirit than those of the Oromase. Its mediums specialized in trance utterances and written communications from the spirits, and its members inclined to a belief in reincarnation, an opinion at variance with that of the older society. Rotterdam had for a time a society known as the Research after Truth, which had similar manifestations and tenets, but it soon came to an end, although its members continued to devote themselves privately to the investigation of spirit phenomena.

Other equally short-lived societies were formed in Haarlem and other towns. In all of these, however, there was a shortage of mediums able to produce form materializations. To supply this demand a number of foreign mediums hastened to Holland, including Margaret Fox Kane (of the Fox sisters), the Davenport brothers, Florence Cook, and Henry Slade.

Before this the comparatively private nature of the séances and the high standing of those who took part in them had prevented the periodicals from making any but the most cautious comments on the séances. The appearance of professional mediums on the scene, however, swept away the barrier and let loose a flood of journalistic ridicule and criticism. This in turn provoked the supporters of Spiritualism to retort, and soon a lively battle was in progress between the Spiritualists and the skeptics. The consequence was that "the cause" was promoted as much by the articles that derided it as by those that were in favor of it.

Among the defenders of Spiritualism was Madame Elise van Calcar, who not only wrote a novel expounding Spiritualist principles but also published a monthly journal, On the Boundaries of Two Worlds, and held a sort of Spiritualist salon where enthusiasts could meet and discuss their favorite subjects. Dutch intellectuals, such as Drs. H. de Grood, J. Van Velzen, Van der Loef, and Herr Schimmel, were among authors who wrote in defense of the same opinions, and the writings of C. F. Varley, Sir William Crookes, and Alfred Russel Wallace were translated into Dutch.

A mesmerist, Signor Donata, carried on the practice of animal magnetism in Holland and endeavored to identify the magnetic force emanating from the operator with the substance of which disembodied spirits were believed to be composed. Progress of the movement was hampered by the many exposures of unscrupulous mediums, but on the whole the mediums, professional or otherwise, were well received. Haunted houses and poltergeists were also noted.

Psychical Research and Parapsychology

Some of the pioneers of psychical research in Holland were Frederik van Eeden (1860-1932), K. H. E. de Jong (1872-1960), P. A. Dietz (1878-1953), and Florentin J. L. Jansen (b. 1881). Van Eeden was an author and physician who sat with the English medium Rosina Thompson and was also acquainted with F. W. H. Myers. Van Eeden contributed "A Study of Dreams" to the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research (vol. 26, p. 431), in which he used the term lucid dream to indicate those conditions in which the dreamer is aware that he is dreaming. This condition of consciousness in the dream state was emphasized by the Bri