Relations between the states of India and Pakistan have been blighted since the two states gained their independence in 1947. The Hindu states of British India formed the new country of India, while those states with a Muslim majority became part of Pakistan. The geographic-religious breakdown of the population meant that Pakistan was divided by India into West and East Pakistan. Those states ruled by local princes were permitted to join either India or Pakistan. The whole process led to a legacy of ill feeling between the two countries, and this was exacerbated by the situation in Kashmir. The Hindu ruler decided that his religiously divided state should join India, in spite of the large Muslim population of the area. Indian and Pakistani troops immediately confronted one another across Kashmir's borders, a situation which continues to this day.
In 1962, a brief border war between China and India resulted in India's defeat, encouraging Pakistan's government to believe that they might be able to win a conflict between the two countries, in spite of the numerical advantage enjoyed by India. In January 1965, a border dispute over the poorly marked frontier of the Rann of Kutch escalated into conflict, although this was ended by agreement in June. In August, tension over Kashmir rose, culminating in further border clashes and claims by each side that the other had violated its territory. An advance by Indian troops was countered by a Pakistani advance, and a full-scale war ensued. By 23 September 1965, both sides were running low on ammunition after a UN embargo had been imposed, and a ceasefire was agreed. In January 1966, both sides agreed to return to the positions they had occupied before the war broke out.
Tension between the two countries remained, and again developed into war in 1971. The Bengali population of East Pakistan had become increasingly disillusioned with rule from West Pakistan, and in elections on 7 December 1970, the Awami League, which demanded Bengali autonomy, won 160 of the 162 seats allocated for the East in the Pakistani National Assembly. This provoked the president of Pakistan into postponing the meeting of the National Assembly. The Bengali leader, Mujibur Rahman, called on the Eastern Pakistanis to go on strike. In response, a curfew was imposed. Negotiations broke down, and some 60, 000 Pakistani troops commanded by Gen Tikka Khan were left to suppress the East, which proclaimed itself to be the independent state of Bangladesh. Pakistani troops embarked upon a wave of repression, which led to an enormous refugee crisis. The number of refugees increased daily, until it was estimated that between nine and fifteen million, or one in five of the Bangladeshi population, had fled to India. By September 1971, it was calculated that the monthly cost of feeding the refugees stood at $200 million. This placed a financial burden upon India which it could not hope to sustain; consequently, it was in India's interest for the crisis to be resolved. Protests to the UN regarding the atrocities being committed by Pakistani forces in Bangladesh did not lead to a satisfactory outcome, and geopolitical considerations meant that it was most unlikely that India could stand aside to allow Pakistan to reassert its authority over the new state.
The conclusion of the monsoon season allowed Bangladesh to be infiltrated by some 30, 000 Bangladeshis of the Mukti Bahini (Liberation Forces), trained by the Indian army. The Mukti Bahini undertook guerrilla activity, concentrated along the frontier with India. Awareness in Pakistan of the co-operative attitude of the Indians toward the Mukti Bahini had serious repercussions. Tension greatly increased, and in November, the governments of both states announced that their forces were to be permitted to cross their frontiers if necessary. This made war an increasing possibility. It came on 3 December, when Pakistan launched air strikes against twelve Indian airfields. India struck back the following day, attacking both towards Bangladesh and Pakistan itself. The advance went well for India, which was able to recognize the new state of Bangladesh on 6 December. Three days later, Jessore was liberated, and six days later, Pakistani forces in Bangladesh surrendered.
Although this marked the last serious fighting between the two, small-scale fighting continues at high altitutude in the Himalayas. These ongoing clashes over Kashmir, which greatly increased tension in 1999, coupled with the fact that both sides have developed and tested nuclear weapons, mean that India and Pakistan remain embroiled in their own local semi-cold war, with no conclusion in sight.
— David Jordan
