Oswald (c. 604–August 5, 642[1]) was King of Northumbria from 634 until his death, and was
subsequently venerated as a Christian saint. He was the son of Æthelfrith of Bernicia and came to rule after spending a period in exile; after defeating the British ruler Cadwallon ap
Cadfan, Oswald brought the two Northumbrian kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira once again under a single ruler, and promoted the
spread of Christianity in Northumbria. He was given a strongly positive assessment by the
historian Bede, writing a little less than a century after Oswald's death, who regarded Oswald as a
saintly king; it is also Bede who is the main source for present-day historical knowledge of Oswald. After eight years of rule,
in which he was the most powerful ruler in Britain, Oswald was killed in the
battle of Maserfield.
Background, youth, and exile
Oswald's father Æthelfrith was a successful Bernician ruler who, after some years in power in Bernicia, also became king of
Deira, and thus was the first to rule both of the kingdoms which would come to be considered the constituent kingdoms of
Northumbria (Bernicia in the northern part and Deira in the southern part); it would, however, be anachronistic to refer to a
"Northumbrian" people or identity at this early stage, when the Bernicians and the Deirans were still clearly distinct
peoples.[2] Oswald's mother, Acha, was a member of the
Deiran royal line who Æthelfrith apparently married as part of his acquisition of Deira or consolidation of power there.[3] Oswald was apparently born in or around the year
604, since Bede says that he was killed at the age of 38 in 642;[4] Æthelfrith's acquisition of Deira is also believed to have occurred
around 604.[5]
Æthelfrith, who was for years a successful war-leader, especially against the native British, was eventually killed in battle
around 616 by Raedwald of East Anglia at the
River Idle. This defeat meant that an exiled member of the Deiran royal line,
Edwin (Acha's brother), became king of Northumbria; Oswald and his brothers fled to
the north. Oswald thus spent the remainder of his youth in the Irish kingdom of Dál Riata in
northern Britain, where he was converted to Christianity.[6] He may also have fought in Ireland
during this period of exile.[7]
Victory over Cadwallon
After Cadwallon ap Cadfan, the king of Gwynedd, in alliance with the
pagan Penda of Mercia, killed Edwin of Deira in battle
at Hatfield Chase in 633 (or 632, depending on when the years used by Bede are considered to have began), Northumbria was split between its
constituent kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira. Oswald's brother Eanfrith became king
of Bernicia, but he was killed by Cadwallon in 634 (or 633) after attempting to negotiate peace.
Subsequently, Oswald, at the head of a small army[6] (possibly with the aid of allies from the north, the Scots and/or the Picts[8]), met Cadwallon in
battle at Heavenfield, near Hexham. Before the
battle, Oswald had a wooden cross erected; he knelt down, holding the cross in position
until enough earth had been thrown in the hole to make it stand firm. He then prayed and asked
his army to join in.[9]
Adomnán in his Life of Saint Columba offers a longer
account, which Abbot Ségéne had heard from Oswald himself. Oswald, he says, had a
vision of Columba the night before the battle, in which he was told:
Be strong and act manfully. Behold, I will be with thee.[10] This coming night go out from your camp into battle, for the Lord has granted me that at this time
your foes shall be put to flight and Cadwallon your enemy shall be delivered into your hands and you shall return victorious
after battle and reign happily.
Oswald described his vision to his council and all agreed that they would be baptised and accept Christianity after the
battle.[11] In the battle that followed, the British were
routed despite their superior numbers; Cadwallon himself was killed.[6]
Overlordship
Following the victory at Heavenfield, Oswald reunited Northumbria and re-established the Bernician supremacy which had been
interrupted by Edwin. Bede says that Oswald held imperium for the eight years of his rule (both Bede and the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle say that Oswald's reign was actually considered to be
nine years, the ninth year being accounted for by assigning to Oswald the year preceding his rule, "on account of the
heathenism practised by those who had ruled that one year between him and Edwin"[12]), and was the most powerful king in Britain. In the 9th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle he is referred to as a Bretwalda. Adomnán describes Oswald as "ordained by God as Emperor of all Britain".[13]
He seems to have been widely recognized as overlord, although the extent of his authority is uncertain. Bede makes the claim
that Oswald "brought under his dominion all the nations and provinces of Britain", which, as Bede notes, was divided by language
between the English, British, Scots, and Picts; however, he seems to undermine his own claim when he mentions at another point in
his history that it was Oswald's brother Oswiu who made tributary the Picts and Scots.[14] An Irish source, the Annals of
Tigernach, records that the Anglo-Saxons banded together against Oswald early in his reign; this may indicate an attempt
to put an end to Oswald's overlordship south of the Humber, which presumably failed.[15]
The Mercians, who participated in Edwin's defeat in 633, seem to have presented an obstacle to
Oswald's authority south of the Humber, although it has been generally thought that Oswald dominated Mercia to some degree after
Heavenfield. It may have been to appease Oswald that Penda had Eadfrith, a captured son of Edwin (and thus a dynastic rival of
Oswald), killed, although it is also possible that Penda had his own motives for the killing.[16]
Oswald apparently controlled Lindsey, given the evidence of a story told by Bede regarding
the moving of Oswald's bones to a monastery there; Bede says that the monks rejected the bones initially because Oswald had ruled
over them as a foreign king (see below). To the north, it may have been Oswald who conquered the
Gododdin. Irish annals record the siege of Edinburgh,
thought to have been the royal stronghold of the Gododdin, in 638, and this seems to mark the end of the kingdom; that this siege
was undertaken by Oswald is suggested by the apparent control of the area by his brother Oswiu in the 650s.[17]
Oswald seems to have been on good terms with the West Saxons: he stood as sponsor to the
baptism of their king, Cynegils, and
married Cynegils' daughter.[18] Her name is reported by
only one source, Reginald of Durham's 12th century Vita S. Oswaldi, which says
that it was Kyneburga.[19] Although Oswald had one known
son, Æthelwald, it is uncertain whether this was a son from his marriage to Cynegils'
daughter or from an earlier relationship—since Æthelwald began ruling in Deira in 651, it has been
argued that a son from this marriage would have been too young at the time to be trusted with this position, and therefore may
have been older, the product of a relationship Oswald had during his exile.[8]
Christianity
Oswald in
The Little Lives of the Saints, illustrated by Charles Robinson in 1904.
Although Edwin had previously converted to Christianity in 627, it was Oswald who did the most to spread the religion in Northumbria. Shortly after becoming king, he asked the
Irish of Dál Riata to send a bishop to facilitate the conversion of his people, and they sent Aidan for this purpose; initially, the Irish sent an "austere" bishop who was unsuccessful in his
mission, and Aidan, who proposed a gentler approach, was subsequently sent instead. Oswald gave the island of Lindisfarne to Aidan as his episcopal see, and Aidan achieved great
success in spreading Christianity; Bede mentions that Oswald acted as Aidan's interpreter when the latter was preaching, since
Aidan did not know English well and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile.[20]
Bede puts a clear emphasis on Oswald being saintly as a king; although he could be interpreted as a martyr for his subsequent
death in battle, Bede portrays Oswald as being saintly for his deeds in life and does not focus on his martyrdom as being primary
to his sainthood—indeed, it has been noted that Bede never uses the word "martyr" in reference to Oswald. In this respect, as a
king regarded as saintly for his life while ruling—in contrast to a king who gives up the kingship in favour of religious life,
or who is venerated because of the manner of his death—Bede's portrayal of Oswald stands out as unusual.[21] Bede recounts Oswald's generosity to the poor and to strangers, and tells
a story highlighting this characteristic: on one occasion, at Easter, Oswald was sitting at dinner with Aidan, and had "a silver
dish full of dainties before him", when a servant, whom Oswald "had appointed to relieve the poor", came in and told Oswald that
a crowd of the poor were in the streets begging alms from the king. Oswald, according to Bede, then
immediately had his food given to the poor and even had the dish broken up and distributed. Aidan was greatly impressed and
seized Oswald's right hand, stating: "May this hand never perish." Accordingly, Bede reports that the hand and arm remained
uncorrupted after Oswald's death.[22]
Downfall
It was a conflict with the pagan Mercians under Penda that proved to be Oswald's undoing. He was killed by the Mercians at the
Battle of Maserfield, at a place generally identified with Oswestry (although other candidates for the location of the battle have been suggested)[23] in 642,[1] and his body was dismembered. Bede mentions the story that Oswald "ended his
life in prayer": he prayed for the souls of his soldiers when he saw that he was about to die. Oswald's head and limbs were
placed on stakes.[24]
The traditional identification of the battle site with Oswestry, probably in the territory of Powys at the time, suggests that Penda may have had British allies in this battle, and this is also
suggested by surviving Welsh poetry which has been thought to indicate the participation of the men of Powys in the battle. It
has also been considered that, if the traditional identification of the site as Oswestry is correct, Oswald was on the offensive,
in the territory of his enemies. This could conflict with Bede's saintly portrayal of Oswald, since an aggressive war could
hardly qualify as a just war, perhaps explaining why Bede is silent on the cause of the war—he
says only that Oswald died "fighting for his fatherland"—as well as his failure to mention other offensive warfare Oswald is
presumed to have engaged in between Heavenfield and Maserfield.[25] Oswald may have had an ally in Penda's brother Eowa, who
was also killed in the battle, according to the Historia Britonnum and Annales
Cambriae; while the source only mentions that Eowa was killed, not the side on which he fought, it has been speculated
that Eowa was subject to Oswald and fighting alongside him in the battle, in opposition to Penda.[26]
84.65.75.8 22:31, 3 October 2007 (UTC)==After death== Oswald soon came to be regarded as a
saint. Bede says that the spot where he died came to be associated with miracles, and people
took dirt from the site, which led to a hole being dug as deep as a man's height.[4] Reginald of Durham recounts another miracle, saying that his right arm
was taken by a bird (perhaps a raven) to an ash tree, which gave the tree ageless
vigor; when the bird dropped the arm onto the ground, a spring emerged from the ground. Both the tree and the spring were,
according to Reginald, subsequently associated with healing miracles.[27][28] Aspects
of the legend have been considered to have pagan overtones or influences[28]—this may represent a fusion of his status as a traditional Germanic warrior-king with
Christianity. The name of the site, Oswestry, or "Oswald's Tree", is generally thought to be derived from Oswald's death there
and the legends surrounding it.[23] His
feast day is August 5. The cult surrounding him
even gained prominence in parts of continental Europe.
Bede mentions that Oswald's brother Oswiu, who succeeded Oswald in Bernicia,
retrieved Oswald's remains in the year after his death.[24] In writing of one miracle associated with Oswald, Bede gives some indication of how Oswald was
regarded in conquered lands: years later, when his niece Osthryth tried to move his bones to a
monastery in Lindsey, its inmates initially refused to accept them, "though they knew him to be
a holy man", because "he was originally of another province, and had reigned over them as a foreign king", and thus "they
retained their ancient aversion to him, even after death". It was only after Oswald's bones were the focus of an awe-inspiring
miracle—in which, during the night, a pillar of light appeared over the wagon in which the bones were being carried and shined up
into the sky—that they were accepted into the monastery: "in the morning, the brethren who had refused it the day before, began
themselves earnestly to pray that those holy relics, so beloved by God, might be deposited among them."[29]
His bones resided either at Lindsey in what became Viking Northumbria, or Bamburgh. But in an exploratory five-week attack on
Lindsey in 909 by the Mercian king, Oswald's remains were captured
and taken away for reburial at Gloucester.
Oswald's head was interred in Durham Cathedral together with the remains of
Cuthbert of Lindisfarne (a saint with whom Oswald became posthumously
associated, although the two were not associated in life; Cuthbert became bishop of Lindisfarne more than forty years after
Oswald's death) and other valuables in a quickly made coffin, where it is generally believed to remain, although there are at
least four other claimed heads of Oswald in continental Europe.[30] One of his arms is said to have ended up in Peterborough
Abbey later in the Middle Ages. The story is that a small group of monks from Peterborough made their way to Bamburgh
where Oswald's uncorrupted arm was kept and stole it under the cover of darkness. They returned with it to Peterborough and in
due time a chapel was created for the arm - Oswald's Chapel. This - minus the arm - can be seen to this day in the south transept
of the cathedral. When creating this chapel the monks of Peterborough had thought of how they had acquired it and built into the
chapel a narrow tower - just big enough for a monk to climb to the top by an internal stair and stand guard over Oswald's Arm 24
hours a day, every day of the year. The monk had to stand because the tower is not large enough for him to sit - sitting could
lull him to sleep - and they knew what could happen when no-one was watching.
Some English place names record his reign, for example Oswaldtwistle in
Lancashire, meaning the twistle of Oswald.
The Church of Saint Oswald stands on the location of the wooden cross left by Oswald at Heavenfield, the night before the
battle. This was rebuilt in 1717. The site is visible from the B6318 Military
Road.
Notes
- ^ a b Bede gives the year of Oswald's death as 642; however, there is some question
as to whether what Bede considered 642 is the same as what would now be considered 642. R. L. Poole (Studies in Chronology and
History, 1934) put forward the theory that Bede's years began in September, and if this theory is followed (as it was, for
instance, by Frank Stenton in his notable history Anglo-Saxon England, first
published in 1943), then the date of the battle of Heavenfield (and the beginning of Oswald's reign) is pushed back from 634 to
633. Thus, if Oswald subsequently reigned for eight years, he would have actually been killed in 641. Poole's theory has been contested, however, and arguments have been made that Bede began his year on December
25 or January 1, in which case Bede's years would be accurate as he gives them.
- ^ Stancliffe, "Oswald", p. 36.
- ^ Kirby, p. 60.
- ^ a b Bede, Historia
Ecclesiastica, Book III, chapter 9.
- ^ Kirby, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Bede, Book III,
chapter 1.
- ^ Kirby, p. 73.
- ^ a b Ziegler.
- ^ Bede, Book III, chapter 2.
- ^ Quoting the Book of Joshua,
1:9.
- ^ Adomnán, Book I, Chapter 1.
- ^ Bede, Book III, chapter 1; ASC, manuscript E, year 634. The quote is
from the ASC.
- ^ Adomnán, Book I, chapter I.
- ^ For the mention of Oswald's power over Britain, see H. E., Book III,
chapter 6; for the mention of Oswiu making the Scots and Picts tributary, see Book II, chapter 5. See Kirby, ,
p. 70, for how this indicates Bede was defining Oswald's supremacy in excessive terms.
- ^ Stancliffe, "Oswald", p. 60. According to Stancliffe, "Oswald would
scarcely have been remembered as an effective overlord in so many Southhumbrian kingdoms if his power had been checked this early
in his career." The report is given under the year 637 in the Annals of Tigernach.
- ^ Stancliffe, "Oswald", pp. 54 and 71–75. Stancliffe mentions Penda's
possible reasons for independently having Eadfrith killed, and expresses doubt that Bede would have regarded Oswald as such a
saintly figure if he had known Oswald was responsible for Eadfrith's death.
- ^ Stancliffe, "Oswald", p. 58.
- ^ Bede, Book III, chapter 7.
- ^ Tudor, p. 187, note 57.
- ^ Bede, Book III, chapters 3 and 5.
- ^ Stancliffe, "Oswald", pp. 41–42.
- ^ Bede, Book III, chapter 6.
- ^ a b Stancliffe, "Where Was Oswald Killed?"
- ^ a b For Bede's mention of Oswald's dying prayer (which he cautiously reports as
hearsay) and Oswald's dismemberment, the placing of his body parts on stakes, and their later recovery by Oswiu, see H.
E., Book III, chapter 12.
- ^ Stancliffe, "Where Was Oswald Killed?", argues in favour of the
traditional identification of the site with Oswestry. For Stancliffe's argument regarding Bede's portrayal of Oswald as fighting
only just wars, Bede's attempt to portray Maserfield as being part of a just war (being fought pro patria), and his
omission of previous aggressive warfare Oswald is thought to have engaged in, see p. 93.
- ^ Brooks.
- ^ Tudor, page 190.
- ^ a b Rollason, page 170.
- ^ Bede, Book III, chapter 11.
- ^ Bailey.
References
- Adomnán, Life of Saint Columba translated and edited Richard Sharpe. ISBN 0-14-044462-9
- Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People translated Sherley-Price, edited D.H. Farmer. ISBN
0-14-044565-X
- Bailey, Richard N., "St Oswald's Heads", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), Oswald: Northumbrian King to European
Saint (1995, 1996). ISBN 1-871615-51-8
- Brooks, Nicholas, "The formation of the Mercian kingdom", in S. Bassett (ed.), The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms
(1989).
- Kirby, D.P., The Earliest English Kings (1991, 2000). ISBN 0-04-445692-1
- Rollason, David, "St Oswald in Post-Conquest England", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), Oswald: Northumbrian King
to European Saint (1995, 1996).
- Stancliffe, Clare, "Oswald, 'Most Holy and Most Victorious King of the Northumbrians'", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge
(eds), Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint (1995, 1996).
- Stancliffe, Clare, "Where Was Oswald Killed?", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), Oswald: Northumbrian King to
European Saint (1995). ISBN 1-871615-51-8
- Tudor, Victoria, "Reginald's Life of St Oswald", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), Oswald: Northumbrian King
to European Saint (1995, 1996). ISBN 1-871615-51-8
- Ziegler, Michelle, "The
Politics of Exile in Early Northumbria", The Heroic Age, Issue 2, Autumn/Winter 1999.
External links
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