A short polypeptide hormone, C43H66N12O12S2, released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, that stimulates the contraction of smooth muscle of the uterus during labor and facilitates ejection of milk from the breast during nursing.
oxytocin
Dictionary:
ox·y·to·cin (ŏk'sĭ-tō'sĭn)  |
n.
| 5min Related Video: Oxytoxin |
| Word Overheard: oxytocin |
New York Times columnist
"Oxytocin is a hormone that helps mammals bond.... In humans, oxytocin levels rise during childbirth, breast feeding and sex. Humans with higher oxytocin levels are more likely to trust other people.... I figure if we can hang Oxytocin Meters around people's necks, we can tell who is involved in healthy relationships and who isn't."
Link: Of Human Bonding
Posted July 3, 2006.
See our Word Overheard blog to see interesting uses of strange words. 
| World of the Body: oxytocin |
Oxytocin is one of the two major hormones secreted from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, the other being vasopressin, the antidiuretic hormone. The posterior pituitary itself largely comprises endings of nerves whose cell bodies lie in the brain in the hypothalamus. Its hormones are extruded from the nerve endings directly into blood capillaries and thence into the general circulation. Oxytocin is a relatively small peptide hormone, composed of only 9 amino acids. It is synthesized in nerve cells in the hypothalamus in the form of a larger, precursor molecule, which is transported down the nerve fibres through the pituitary stalk to the posterior lobe. The active hormone is cleaved from the precursor during this process.
Oxytocin was the first hormone to have its structure identified and to be synthesized in the laboratory. This was achieved in 1953 by two groups, one working in France and the other in the United States. The hormone plays an important role in birth and in feeding the infant. It has two major actions, the first being to promote contractions of the uterus, an action which is used in obstetric practice when the hormone is infused if labour is protracted. The second action is to cause contraction of the muscular elements surrounding the alveoli and milk ducts in the breasts, thereby helping to expel the milk (milk let-down). Oxytocin is also found in men, but its role is not clear, although it has been suggested that it aids sperm transport during mating. The stimuli for release reflect the actions of the hormone and its actions are rapid because they are evoked by sensory nerve impulses which communicate with the hypothalamic nerve cells. Thus it is released during vaginal stimulation, so that during the process of birth, as the infant enters the birth canal, oxytocin is released and in turn causes increased uterine activity, allowing the process to proceed more rapidly. The oxytocin released at this time may also cause milk ejection, a response known as Ferguson's reflex. This reflex was first described in 1942, although herdsmen had been aware of it for centuries and had used it as an aid to milking; in the second century ad, Galen, the Greek physician and prolific writer, described how herdsmen would blow into the vagina of mares to improve milk yield. Oxytocin is also released in response to suckling and many other stimuli associated with breast feeding, such as the sight and sound of the infant. If the mother is not relaxed, this may act via the hypothalamus to inhibit oxytocin release so that problems with breast feeding may arise.
Interestingly, there have been no descriptions of clinical conditions associated with over- or underproduction of this hormone. Recent work with genetically modified mice which are unable to produce oxytocin indicates that the hormone is essential for lactation, but not for parturition.
Oxytocin exemplifies interplay between hormonal and neural systems: unlike most hormones, it is made in nerve rather than glandular cells. Sensory nerves stimulate the nerve cells to activate its extrusion into the blood so that — like other hormones — it reaches the ‘target’ site via the circulation. This is an example of a ‘neuroendocrine’ secretion.
— Mary L. Forsling
See also birth; breast; hormones; infant feeding; pituitary.
| Dental Dictionary: oxytocin |
(ok′sētō′sin)
n
n
A hormone of the posterior pituitary gland that is the principal uterus-contracting hormone. Used in obstetrics to induce uterine contractions.
| Drug Info: Oxytocin |
Brand names: Pitocin®
Chemical formula:
- Drug Forms:
- Oxytocin injection (below)
- Oxytocin Solution for injection
Oxytocin injection
What is oxytocin injection?
OXYTOCIN (Pitocin®, Syntocinon®) is a natural hormone produced in the brain that causes the uterus to contract. Oxytocin can be used when labor needs to be induced or during labor if the contractions are not strong enough to progress normally. It is also used to control bleeding after childbirth. Oxytocin also can help to stimulate contractions if there is an incomplete abortion or miscarriage. Generic oxytocin injections are available.
What should I tell my health care provider before I take this medicine?
They need to know if you have any of these conditions:
• breech, placenta previa, or other abnormal position of the fetus or umbilical cord
• cervical cancer
• eclampsia
• herpes infection
• more than 7 pregnancies
• premature delivery
• previous uterine surgery (including cesarean section)
• prolapsed uterus
• an unusual or allergic reaction to oxytocin, other medicines, foods, dyes, or preservatives
How should I use this medicine?
Oxytocin is for injection into a muscle or infusion into a vein. It is given by a health-care professional in a hospital or clinic setting where uterine contractions, mother's blood pressure and mother's and baby's heart rates can be monitored regularly, and where emergency measures can be taken immediately, if needed.
What drug(s) may interact with oxytocin?
Oxytocin can interact with some other medicines. Your condition will be carefully monitored while you receive oxytocin.
Tell your prescriber or health care professional about all other medicines you are taking, including non-prescription medicines, nutritional supplements, or herbal products. Also tell your prescriber or health care professional if you are a frequent user of drinks with caffeine or alcohol, if you smoke, or if you use illegal drugs. These may affect the way your medicine works. Check with your health care professional before stopping or starting any of your medicines.
What should I watch for while taking oxytocin?
Your condition will be closely monitored while you receive oxytocin.
What side effects may I notice from receiving oxytocin?
Side effects with oxytocin are rare. Serious side effects with oxytocin include:
• chest pain or difficulty breathing
• confusion
• difficulty passing urine, sudden weight gain
• excessive or continuing vaginal bleeding
• fast or irregular heartbeat (palpitations)
• seizures (convulsions)
• severe or continuing headaches
• skin rash or itching (hives)
• unusual swelling
Side effects that usually do not require medical attention (report to your prescriber or health care professional if they continue or are bothersome):
• irritation at the injection site
• nausea and vomiting
Where can I keep my medicine?
This medication is only given in a hospital or clinic. You will not keep this medicine at home.
Last updated: 7/1/2002
Important Disclaimer: The drug information provided here is for educational purposes only. It is intended to supplement, not substitute for, the diagnosis, treatment and advice of a medical professional. This drug information does not cover all possible uses, precautions, side effects and interactions. It should not be construed to indicate that this or any drug is safe for you. Consult your medical professional for guidance before using any prescription or over the counter drugs.
| Columbia Encyclopedia: oxytocin |
oxytocin (ŏksĭtō'sĭn), hormone released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland that facilitates uterine contractions and the milk-ejection reflex. The structure of oxytocin, a cyclic peptide consisting of nine amino acids, was determined in 1953 and in the same year it was synthesized in the laboratory. Both oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone are biosynthesized in the hypothalamus of the brain and travel down neuronal axons to the posterior pituitary, where they accumulate prior to release. Stimuli that elicit the release of oxytocin include childbirth, suckling, and coitus; the uterine contractions that result may facilitate either childbirth or the ascent of spermatozoa through the fallopian tubes. Oxytocin may also play a role in the initiation of labor. The milk-ejection response occurs only in females immediately after childbirth. The role of oxytocin in males is unknown.
| Veterinary Dictionary: oxytocin |
A hypothalamic hormone stored in and released from the posterior pituitary, or prepared synthetically. Produced also by the corpus luteum of sheep, and perhaps other animals. Involved in the release of PGF2α which induces luteolysis. It acts as a powerful stimulant to the pregnant uterus, especially toward the end of gestation. The hormone also causes milk to be expressed from the alveoli into the lactiferous ducts during suckling.
| Wikipedia: Oxytocin |
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Oxytocin
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| Systematic (IUPAC) name | |
| 3-(19-amino-13-sec-butyl-7-
(carboxymethyl)-4-(2-(1-(carboxymethylamino)-5- guanidino-1-oxopentan-2-ylcarbamoyl) pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl)-16-(4-hydroxybenzyl)- 6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-1,2-dithia-5,8,11,14,17- pentaazacycloicosan-10-yl)propanoic acid |
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| Identifiers | |
| CAS number | 50-56-6 |
| ATC code | H01BB02 |
| PubChem | 439302 |
| DrugBank | BTD00016 |
| ChemSpider | 388434 |
| Chemical data | |
| Formula | C43H66N12O12S2 |
| Mol. mass | 1007.19 g/mol |
| Pharmacokinetic data | |
| Bioavailability | nil |
| Protein binding | 30% |
| Metabolism | hepatic oxytocinases |
| Half life | 1–6 min |
| Excretion | Biliary and renal |
| Therapeutic considerations | |
| Pregnancy cat. |
A(AU) |
| Legal status | |
| Routes | Intranasal, IV, IM
|
Oxytocin (pronounced /ˌɒksɨˈtoʊsɪn/) (sold as Pitocin, Syntocinon) is a mammalian hormone that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
It is best known for its roles in female reproduction: it is released in large amounts after distension of the cervix and vagina during labor, and after stimulation of the nipples, facilitating birth and breastfeeding, respectively. Recent studies have begun to investigate oxytocin's role in various behaviors, including orgasm, social recognition, pair bonding, anxiety, trust, love, and maternal behaviors.[1]
Contents |
Synthesis, storage and release
Oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus and is stored in Herring bodies at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland. Oxytocin is also made by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord. Depending on the species, oxytocin-expressing cells are located in other areas, including the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. It is postulated that trusting behavior is somehow influenced by these oxytocin stimulated neurons.
In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to neurophysin I as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large peptide fragment of the larger precursor protein molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage.
Secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate action potentials that propagate down axons to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by exocytosis when the nerve terminals are depolarised.
Oxytocin is also synthesized by corpora lutea of several species, including ruminants and primates. Along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis of Prostaglandin-F2alpha to cause regression of the corpus luteum.
Structure and relation to vasopressin
Oxytocin is a peptide of nine amino acids (a nonapeptide). The sequence is cysteine - tyrosine - isoleucine - glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - leucine - glycine (CYIQNCPLG). The cysteine residues form a sulfur bridge. Oxytocin has a molecular mass of 1007 daltons. One international unit (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of about 2 micrograms of pure peptide.
The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of vasopressin (cysteine - tyrosine - phenylalanine - glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - arginine - glycine), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge, whose sequence differs from oxytocin by 2 amino acids. A table showing the sequences of members of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily and the species expressing them is present in the vasopressin article. Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1953, work for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955.
Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects.
Actions
| oxytocin, prepro- (neurophysin I) | |
|---|---|
| Identifiers | |
| Symbol | OXT |
| Alt. symbols | OT |
| Entrez | 5020 |
| HUGO | 8528 |
| OMIM | 167050 |
| RefSeq | NM_000915 |
| UniProt | P01178 |
| Other data | |
| Locus | Chr. 20 p13 |
Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. The actions of oxytocin are mediated by specific, high affinity oxytocin receptors. The oxytocin receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor which requires Mg2+ and cholesterol. It belongs to the rhodopsin-type (class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors.
Peripheral (hormonal) actions
The peripheral actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the pituitary gland. (See oxytocin receptor for more detail on its action.)
- Letdown reflex – in lactating (breastfeeding) mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into a collecting chamber, from where it can be extracted by compressing the areola and sucking at the nipple. Sucking by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituitary gland.
- Uterine contraction – important for cervical dilation before birth and causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful uterine contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in knockout mice lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition is normal.[2]
- The relationship between oxytocin and human sexual response is unclear. At least two non-controlled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm – in both men and women.[3][4] The authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport.[3] Murphy et al. (1987), studying men, found that oxytocin levels were raised throughout sexual arousal and there was no acute increase at orgasm.[5] A more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. The authors noted that these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue."[6]
- Due to its similarity to vasopressin, it can reduce the excretion of urine slightly. In several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and in humans, high doses of oxytocin can result in hyponatremia.
- Oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation.[7][8] However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.[2]
- Modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Oxytocin, under certain circumstances, indirectly inhibits release of adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol and, in those situations, may be considered an antagonist of vasopressin.[9]
Actions of oxytocin within the brain
Oxytocin secreted from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain because of the blood-brain barrier. Instead, the behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland. Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, septum and brainstem.
- Sexual arousal. Oxytocin injected into the cerebrospinal fluid causes spontaneous erections in rats,[10] reflecting actions in the hypothalamus and spinal cord.
- Bonding. In the Prairie Vole, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a monogamous pair bond with her sexual partner. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males.[11] Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, and so it seems likely that it has similar roles in humans.
- Autism. Oxytocin may play a role in autism and may be an effective treatment for autism's repetitive and affiliative behaviors.[12] Two related studies in adults, in 2003 and 2007, found that oxytocin decreased repetitive behaviors and improved interpretation of emotions, but these preliminary results do not necessarily apply to children.[13]
- Maternal behavior. Rat females given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior.[14] By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior towards foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise.[15]
- Increasing trust and reducing fear. In a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told that they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk-aversion.[16] Nasally administered oxytocin has also been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses).[17] There is no conclusive evidence for access of oxytocin to the brain through intranasal administration, however.
- Affecting generosity by increasing empathy during perspective taking. In a neuroeconomics experiment, intranasal oxytocin increased generosity in the Ultimatum Game by 80% but has no effect in the Dictator Game that measures altruism. Perspective-taking is not required in the Dictator Game, but the researchers in this experiment explicitly induced perspective-taking in the Ultimatum Game by not identifying to participants which role they would be in.[18]
- According to some studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol) and reduces withdrawal symptoms.[19]
- Preparing fetal neurons for delivery. Crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitter GABA from excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. This silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability to hypoxic damage.[20]
- Certain learning and memory functions are impaired by centrally administered oxytocin.[10] Also, systemic oxytocin administration can impair memory retrieval in certain aversive memory tasks.[21]
- MDMA (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity via activation of serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, if initial studies in animals apply to humans.[22]
Drug forms
Synthetic oxytocin is sold as medication under the trade names Pitocin and Syntocinon and also as generic oxytocin. Oxytocin is destroyed in the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore must be administered by injection or as nasal spray. Oxytocin has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood. Oxytocin given intravenously does not enter the brain in significant quantities - it is excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier. There is no evidence for significant CNS entry of oxytocin by nasal spray. Oxytocin nasal sprays have been used to stimulate breastfeeding but the efficacy of this approach is doubtful.[23]
Injected oxytocin analogues are used to induce labor and support labor in case of non-progression of parturition. It has largely replaced ergometrine as the principal agent to increase uterine tone in acute postpartum haemorrhage. Oxytocin is also used in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to increase milk production. The tocolytic agent atosiban (Tractocile) acts as an antagonist of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labour between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. It has fewer side-effects than drugs previously used for this purpose (ritodrine, salbutamol and terbutaline). Some have suggested that the trust-inducing property of oxytocin might help those who suffer from social anxieties and mood disorders, while others have noted the potential for abuse with confidence tricks[24][25] and military applications.[26]
Potential adverse reactions
Oxytocin is relatively safe when used at recommended doses. Potential side effects include:[citation needed]
- Central nervous system: Subarachnoid hemorrhage, seizures.
- Cardiovascular: Increased heart rate, decreased blood pressure, systemic venous return, cardiac output, and arrhythmias.
- Genitourinary: Impaired uterine blood flow, pelvic hematoma, tetanic uterine contractions, uterine rupture, postpartum hemorrhage.
Evolution
Virtually all vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are usually located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same chromosome and are transcribed in opposite directions (however, for example, see[27] for fugu).
It is thought that the two genes resulted from a gene duplication event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in cyclostomes (modern members of the Agnatha).[10]
See also
References
- ^ Lee HJ, Macbeth AH, Pagani JH, Young WS (June 2009). "Oxytocin: the great facilitator of life". Prog. Neurobiol. 88 (2): 127–51. doi:. PMID 19482229.
- ^ a b Takayanagi Y, Yoshida M, Bielsky IF, Ross HE, Kawamata M, Onaka T, Yanagisawa T, Kimura T, Matzuk MM, Young LJ, Nishimori K (November 2005). "Pervasive social deficits, but normal parturition, in oxytocin receptor-deficient mice". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (44): 16096–101. doi:. PMID 16249339.
- ^ a b Carmichael MS, Humbert R, Dixen J, Palmisano G, Greenleaf W, Davidson JM (January 1987). "Plasma oxytocin increases in the human sexual response". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 64 (1): 27–31. PMID 3782434. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3782434. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
- ^ Carmichael MS, Warburton VL, Dixen J, Davidson JM (February 1994). "Relationships among cardiovascular, muscular, and oxytocin responses during human sexual activity". Arch Sex Behav 23 (1): 59–79. PMID 8135652.
- ^ Murphy MR, Seckl JR, Burton S, Checkley SA, Lightman SL (October 1987). "Changes in oxytocin and vasopressin secretion during sexual activity in men". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 65 (4): 738–41. PMID 3654918.
- ^ Krüger TH, Haake P, Chereath D, Knapp W, Janssen OE, Exton MS, Schedlowski M, Hartmann U (April 2003). "Specificity of the neuroendocrine response to orgasm during sexual arousal in men". J. Endocrinol. 177 (1): 57–64. doi:. PMID 12697037.
- ^ Paquin J, Danalache BA, Jankowski M, McCann SM, Gutkowska J (July 2002). "Oxytocin induces differentiation of P19 embryonic stem cells to cardiomyocytes". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99 (14): 9550–5. doi:. PMID 12093924.
- ^ Jankowski M, Danalache B, Wang D, Bhat P, Hajjar F, Marcinkiewicz M, Paquin J, McCann SM, Gutkowska J (August 2004). "Oxytocin in cardiac ontogeny". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (35): 13074–9. doi:. PMID 15316117.
- ^ Hartwig, Walenty (1989). Endokrynologia praktyczna. Warszawa: Pa℗nst. Zaka̜d Wydawnictw Lekarskich. ISBN 83-200-1415-8.
- ^ a b c Gimpl G, Fahrenholz F (April 2001). "The oxytocin receptor system: structure, function, and regulation". Physiol. Rev. 81 (2): 629–83. PMID 11274341. http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/81/2/629.
- ^ Vacek M, High on Fidelity. What can voles teach us about monogamy?
- ^ Bartz JA, Hollander E (2008). "Oxytocin and experimental therapeutics in autism spectrum disorders". Prog Brain Res 170 (451–62): 451. doi:. PMID 18655901.
- ^ Opar A (2008). "Search for potential autism treatments turns to 'trust hormone'". Nat Med 14 (4): 353. doi:. PMID 18391923.
- ^ van Leengoed E, Kerker E, Swanson HH (February 1987). "Inhibition of post-partum maternal behaviour in the rat by injecting an oxytocin antagonist into the cerebral ventricles". J. Endocrinol. 112 (2): 275–82. doi:. PMID 3819639.
- ^ Kendrick KM (2004-01-01). "The Neurobiology of Social Bonds". British Society for Neuroendocrinology. http://neuroendo.org.uk/index.php/content/view/34/11/. Retrieved 2009-04-13.
- ^ Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (June 2005). "PDF Oxytocin increases trust in humans". Nature 435 (7042): 673–6. doi:. PMID 15931222. http://www.iew.unizh.ch/home/kosfeld/papers/ottrust_nature.pdf PDF.
- ^ Kirsch P, Esslinger C, Chen Q, Mier D, Lis S, Siddhanti S, Gruppe H, Mattay VS, Gallhofer B, Meyer-Lindenberg A (December 2005). "Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans". J. Neurosci. 25 (49): 11489–93. doi:. PMID 16339042.
- ^ Zak PJ, Stanton AA, Ahmadi S (2007). "Oxytocin increases generosity in humans". PLoS ONE 2 (11): e1128. doi:. PMID 17987115.
- ^ Kovács GL, Sarnyai Z, Szabó G (November 1998). "Oxytocin and addiction: a review". Psychoneuroendocrinology 23 (8): 945–62. doi:. PMID 9924746.
- ^ Tyzio R, Cossart R, Khalilov I, Minlebaev M, Hübner CA, Represa A, Ben-Ari Y, Khazipov R (December 2006). "Maternal oxytocin triggers a transient inhibitory switch in GABA signaling in the fetal brain during delivery". Science (journal) 314 (5806): 1788–92. doi:. PMID 17170309.
- ^ de Oliveira LF, Camboim C, Diehl F, Consiglio AR, Quillfeldt JA (January 2007). "Glucocorticoid-mediated effects of systemic oxytocin upon memory retrieval". Neurobiol Learn Mem 87 (1): 67–71. doi:. PMID 16997585.
- ^ Thompson MR, Callaghan PD, Hunt GE, Cornish JL, McGregor IS (May 2007). "A role for oxytocin and 5-HT(1A) receptors in the prosocial effects of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy")". Neuroscience 146 (2): 509–14. doi:. PMID 17383105.
- ^ Fewtrell MS, Loh KL, Blake A, Ridout DA, Hawdon J (May 2006). "Randomised, double blind trial of oxytocin nasal spray in mothers expressing breast milk for preterm infants". Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 91 (3): F169–74. doi:. PMID 16223754.
- ^ Petrovic P, Kalisch R, Singer T, Dolan RJ (June 2008). "Oxytocin attenuates affective evaluations of conditioned faces and amygdala activity". J. Neurosci. 28 (26): 6607–15. doi:. PMID 18579733.
- ^ "To sniff at danger - Mind Matters". Health And Fitness. Boston Globe. 2006-01-12. http://www.smh.com.au/news/mind-matters/to-sniff-at-danger/2006/01/12/1136956247384.html. Retrieved 2009-04-13.
- ^ Dando M (August 2009). "Biologists napping while work militarized". Nature 460 (7258): 950–1. doi:. PMID 19693065. Lay summary – Reuters.com.
- ^ Venkatesh B, Si-Hoe SL, Murphy D, Brenner S (November 1997). "Transgenic rats reveal functional conservation of regulatory controls between the Fugu isotocin and rat oxytocin genes". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94 (23): 12462–6. PMID 9356472. PMC 25001. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9356472.
External links
- New Scientist -'Cuddle chemical' could treat mental illness (14 May 2008)
- Caldwell, H.K. and Young, W.S., III. Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Genetics and Behavioral Implications in Lim, R. (ed.) Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology, 3rd edition, Springer, New York, pp. 573-607, 2006. 320kb PDF
- NewScientist.com - 'Release of Oxytocin due to penetrative sex reduces stress and neurotic tendencies', New Scientist (January 26, 2006)
- Oxytocin.org - 'I get a kick out of you: Scientists are finding that, after all, love really is down to a chemical addiction between people', The Economist (February 12, 2004)
- SMH.com.au - 'To sniff at danger: Inhalable oxytocin could become a cure for social fears', Boston Globe (January 12, 2006)
- Hug the Monkey - A weblog devoted entirely to oxytocin
- A Neurophysiologic Model of the Circuitry of Oxytocin in Arousal, Female Distress and Depression - Rainer K. Liedtke, MD
- Lee HJ, Macbeth AH, Pagani JH, Young WS 3rd. Oxytocin: the great facilitator of life. Prog Neurobiol. 2009 Jun;88(2):127-51. Epub 2009 PMID: 19482229 [1]
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| Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/. Read more |
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| Veterinary Dictionary. Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. Copyright © 2007 by D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay, Elsevier. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Oxytocin". Read more |
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