This article is about the influence of western culture. For the eye surgery, see
Epicanthoplasty.
Westernisation or occidentalisation (from occident, see wiktionary) is a process whereby societies come under or adopt the Western culture in such matters as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet, religion, philosophy, or values. Westernisation has been a pervasive and accelerating influence across the world in the last few centuries. It is usually a two-sided process, in which western influences and interests themselves are joined by a wish of at least parts of the affected society to change towards a more westernised society, in the hope of attaining western life or some aspects of it.
Westernisation can also be related to the process of acculturation and/or enculturation. Acculturation refers to the changes that occur within a society or culture when two different groups come into direct continuous contact. After the contact, changes in cultural patterns within either or both cultures are evident. In popular speech, Westernisation can also refer to the effects of Western expansion and colonialism on native societies.
For example, natives who have adopted European languages and characteristic Western customs are called acculturated or Westernised. Westernisation may be forced or voluntary depending on the situation of the contact.
Different degrees of domination, destruction, resistance, survival, adaptation, and modification of the native culture may follow inter-ethnic contact. In a situation where the native culture experiences destruction as a result of a more powerful outsider, a "shock phase" often is a result from the encounter. This shock phase is especially characteristic during interactions involving expansionist or colonialist eras. During the shock phase, civil repression using military force may lead to a cultural collapse, or ethnocide, which is a culture’s physical extinction. According to Conrad Phillip, the westerners "will attempt to remake the native culture within their own image, ignoring the fact that the models of culture that they have created are inappropriate for settings outside of western civilisation" (Phillip, Conrad. (2005). Window on Humanity. New York: McGraw-Hill).
Definition of the West
Main article:
Western world
Territorial
The West was originally defined as Western Europe. Ancient Romans distinguished between Oriental (Eastern) cultures that inhabited present day Egypt and Turkey and Occidental Cultures that lived in the West. A thousand years later, the East-West Schism separated the Catholic Church from the Eastern Orthodox Church. The definition of Western changed as the West was influenced by and spread to other nations. Islamic and Byzantine scholars added to the Western canon when their stores of Greek and Roman literature jump started the Renaissance. The West expanded to include Russia when Peter the Great brought back ideas from France. Today, most modern uses of the term refer to the societies of Western and Central Europe and their close genealogical, linguistic, and philosophical descendants, typically included are those countries whose ethnic identity and dominant culture are derived from European culture.
The Western civilisation can be defined as at least North America, West and Central Europe, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. North America includes the U.S.A., Canada and Greenland (as part of Denmark). Widening this definition however invites controversy. This widened definition can include these countries, or a combination of these countries:
- Latin-America. Many countries in Latin America are sometimes regarded as Western countries, largely because most of it's peoples are racially descended from Europeans (Spanish and Portuguese settlers mainly) and Natives. And thus their society operates in a highly Westernised way. Indeed, most countries in Latin America use their official language, either in Spanish or Portuguese. According to the CIA -The World Factbook-, there has also been considerable immigration to Latin America from European nations other than Spain and Portugal, (For example, from Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, etc. See Immigration to Brazil or Immigration to Argentina.). [1]. There are also many indigenous cultures with their own languages in Latin America.
- South Africa. South Africa is most of the time considered Western because of its languages (Afrikaans, English) and because of its religion (Christianity). It also has a similar economic system. Furthermore, about 12% of the South African population are of European origin (White).
HIH Japanese
Princess Kaneko Higashi-fushimi in western clothing
- Central, Eastern Europe, The Balkans - Due to their membership to the European Union and European Neighbourhood Policy, these countries are included to the definition of the West, as they more or less share a common European identity with Western Europeans. This view has increasingly gained support, especially since the disintegration of communism (through money) and the current European integration process that is a direct result of that disintegration. Others, however, like the American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, consider the majority-Orthodox Christian part of Europe as very different from the West. Most who support Huntington's view, believe that Eastern Europe, from Central Europe to the Balkans, European Russia and the Caucasus, did not experience the renaissance or the full strength of the industrial revolution to be considered as part of "The West". Equally they maintain that Eastern European culture is not shaped by western Christian traditions of Catholicism or Protestantism, but rather by Eastern Orthodoxy or Islam. From a different angle, this part of the world does not fulfil the economic and standard of living criteria one would associate with the "West".
- Japan. Japan is sometimes considered Western, as this country supported the West during the Cold War, has a similar economic system and welfare, is a stable democracy, protects human rights, etc. Also, Japan is a member of typical Western organisations like the OECD, and together with Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, Japan constitutes the Group of Eight (G8).
Personal
A different view on the Western world is not defining it by its territory, but by its people, as these tend to differ in an increasingly globalised world. This view highlights the non-Western population in countries with a Western majority, or vice versa. The Boers for instance can be regarded as Western inhabitants of South Africa.
Differences
It would be incorrect to regard the Western world as a monolithic bloc, as there exist many cultural, linguistic, religious, political, and economical differences between Western countries and populations. The western world itself is changing over time as it has in the past.
Process of Westernisation
Colonisation (1492-1960s)
Main article:
Colonialism
Europeanisation
From 1492 onward, Europeanisation and colonialism spread gradually over much of the world, colonising major portions of the globe. The two World Wars weakened the European powers to such extent that many colonies strove for independence, often inspired by nationalistic movements. A period of decolonisation started. At the end of the 1960s, most colonies were autonomous. Those new states often adopted some aspects of Western politics such as the adoption of a constitution, while frequently reacting against western culture.
Reactions
A reaction to Westernisation can include fundamentalism, protectionism or embrace to varying degrees. Countries such as North Korea and China tried to adopt isolationism, but they have been unable to resist the adoption of many aspects of Western culture. In Japan, the Netherlands continued to play a key role in transmitting Western know-how to the Japanese from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, as the Japanese had opened their doors only to Dutch Merchants before US Navy Captain, Commodore Perry’s visit in 1852. After Commodore Perry's visit, Japan began to deliberately accept Western culture to the point of hiring Westerners to teach Western customs and traditions to the Japanese starting in the Meiji era. Many Japanese politicians have since also encouraged the westernisation of Japan using the term, Datsu-A Ron, which means the argument for "leaving Asia" or "Good-bye Asia". In Datsu-A Ron, "westernisation" was described as an "unavoidable" but "fruitful" change.
Globalisation (1960s-now)
Westernisation is often regarded as a part of the ongoing process of globalisation. This theory proposes that western thought has led to globalisation, and that globalisation propagates western culture, leading to a cycle of westernisation. On top of largely Western government systems such as democracy and constitution, many Western technologies and customs like music, clothing and cars have been introduced across various parts of the world and copied and created in traditionally non-Western countries like Japan, China, India, etc.
The main characteristics are economic liberalisation (free trade) and democratisation, combined with the spread of an individualised culture. Often it was also regarded of the opposite of the worldwide influence of communism. After the break-up of the USSR in 1991, many of its component states and allies nevertheless underwent westernisation, including privatisation of hitherto state-controlled industry.
Westernisation as globalisation is seen by many as progress, as democracy and free trade spread gradually throughout the world. Others view westernisation as a disadvantage. Some have protested that Asian cultures who have traditionally existed on a primarily plant-based diet might lose this healthy lifestyle as more people in Asia switch to a Western-style diet that is rich in animal-based foods. (Cornell Times, 2001[1])
Consequences
Negative
Due to the colonisation of the Americas and Oceania by Europeans, the cultural, ethnic and linguistic make-up of the Americas and Oceania has been irreversibly changed. This is most visible in settler colonies such as the United States of America, Australia, Canada, Argentina, New Zealand and Uruguay, where the traditional indigenous population has been overtaken demographically by non-indigenous settlers. This demographic takeover in settler countries has often resulted in the linguistic, social, and cultural marginalisation of indigenous peoples. However, even in countries where large populations of indigenous peoples remain or the indigenous peoples have mixed considerably with European settlers, such as Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Ecuador, marginalisation still exists. Due to colonisation, the prevalent languages in the Americas, Australia and New Zealand are now: Portuguese (Brazil), Spanish (the rest of Latin America), French (Quebec in Canada, French Guiana), and English (USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand). Many indigenous languages are on the verge of becoming extinct. However, some settler countries have gone to great lengths to preserve and expand indigenous languages, for example, in New Zealand the Māori language is official, some however, would argue that this is a token gesture.
Positive
Not all aspects of Westernisation are considered bad by all people. Western medicine, science, and technology have led to longer life expectancy. Everyday conveniences of living, means of travel such as trains, cars, and aeroplanes, and media enabling enhanced entertainment and interactivity such as Internet and Hollywood movies are used and enjoyed by many people around the world. Although opinions concerning damage to traditional values and customs are sometimes expressed, positive aspects of Western culture are not ignored either. However, this is assuming that culture is defined by technological advances rather than cultural values in which case one can see that most western countries are very much sinicised: the drinking of tea, the use of gunpowder, fireworks, traditional Chinese medicine, the wheelbarrow to name a few.
See also
The West
Cultural influence
Europe and USA
- Americanisation is the term used for the influence the United States of America has on other cultures.
- Anglicisation is the process of making something English.
- Europeanisation can either mean the process of transforming a society into a more European society or the process of growth towards a European identity in Europe.
- Francisation is the process of giving a French character to something or someone.
- Germanisation is defined as either the spread of the German language and culture, or the adaptation of a word to the German language.
- Hellenisation, the spread of Greek culture and language.
- Latinisation is a system for representing a word or language with the Latin alphabet, or the traditions of the Latin Rite into Eastern Catholic Church Liturgies and practices.
- Romanisation, the spread of Roman culture and language.
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- Korenisation or Korenizatsiya was the early Soviet ethnicity policy.
- Magyarisation or Magyarization refers to spreading the Hungarian language and culture in general.
- Polonisation is the assumption or assimilation of the Polish language or another Polish attribute.
- Russification is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attribute by non-Russian communities.
- de-Russification is a process in the post-Soviet countries to overcome the consequences of the Russification.
- Slovakisation refers to the policies of Czechoslovakia then Slovakia against the ethnic Hungarians there.
- Turkification is a term used to describe a cultural change in which something or someone who is not a Turk becomes one, voluntarily or by force.
- Ukrainisation was the policy conducted by the Bolshevik party and the Government of the Ukrainian SSR during 1920s and 1930s to increase the presence of Ukraine.
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References
Further reading
- Ankerl, Guy. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
External links
- Global Culture Essays on globalisation and its impact on global culture
