chicken

1. 1. The common domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) or its young.
   2. Any of various similar or related birds.
   3. The flesh of the common domestic fowl.
2. Slang. A coward.
3. Any of various foolhardy competitions in which the participants persist in a dangerous course of action until one loses nerve and stops.
4. Vulgar Slang. A young gay male, especially as sought by an older man.

[Middle English chiken, from Old English cīcen.]

For more information on chicken, visit Britannica.com.

Chicken in the United States is a cheap and readily available meat. It is packed in a variety of formats, from whole roasting chickens to selections of one particular cut, such as thighs or wings. Highly automated, large-scale chicken farming and processing complexes run by large corporations fuel the American chicken market. The development of so-called factory farming sharply reduced the price and increased the availability of chicken, when this method was introduced in the 1920s.

Background

The ancestor of today's domestic chicken is the wild red jungle fowl Gallus gallus, native to India and Southeast Asia. The red jungle fowl was first domesticated apparently for use in religious rituals involving cockfighting. The domesticated bird spread west-ward from India to Greece, and was later introduced to Western Europe by invading Roman armies. By the Roman era, chickens were used as food, both for their meat and for their eggs. Romans commonly carried them on their ships, as a convenient source of fresh food.

The first European settlers in North America brought chickens with them. But until the twentieth century, there was no chicken industry as such in this country. Care of the chicken flock was for the most part considered work for women and children. At that time, a typical hen laid only 30 eggs a year, and farm wives sold their excess at market as supplemental income. Chicken meat was usually only plentiful in the early summer, when chickens that had hatched in the spring were big enough to eat. Because chicken husbandry was primarily women's work, only as an adjunct to the major farm production, distribution channels were limited. Whereas railroads were built to bring cattle from the West to waiting urban markets, no such effort was put into chicken production, and chicken was available in cities more or less sporadically, with large seasonal jumps in prices and amount of supply.

Several inventors perfected chicken incubators in the late nineteenth century. These machines could keep hundreds of eggs at a time warm, and so made possible commercial breeding of chicks. In the nineteenth century, breeding of chickens was mostly a hobby, with many poultry enthusiasts raising fabulously feathered chickens. Showy and colorful exotic breeds were the most popular; however, with the advent of mechanical incubators, poultry breeders began to breed birds with good egg-laying and meat production potential.

The first person in the United States to raise broiler chickens (chickens for meat) on a large scale strictly for profit was a Mrs. Wilmer Steele, of Ocean View, Delaware. In 1923, Mrs. Steele bought 500 chicks and sold the surviving 387 of them when they matured to 2 lb (0.9 kg). Her profit was enormous, and within just a few years, Delaware became the center of a thriving chicken industry. In 1926, the state produced around one million broiler chickens.

By 1934, it was raising about seven million chickens annually. In the 1930s, the National Poultry Improvement Plan, a federal-state cooperative mission, helped chicken farmers use scientific breeding principles to produce superior strains of birds. At this time, birds were first bred specifically for meat production. The important qualities of broiler chickens were rapid growth, white feathers (dark feathers left unsightly stubs), and meaty breasts and thighs. The advances in breeding made quite an impact: in 1900, a typical chick took 16 weeks to reach 2 lb (0.9 kg), which was considered frying weight. Today, a commercial broiler chicken lives only about six weeks, and weighs about 4 lb (1.8 kg) at slaughter.

Advances in nutrition were also important to the development of a commercial chicken industry. Chicken nutrition has actually been studied more, and is better understood, than human nutrition. The combined efforts of the feed industry, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and agricultural scientists led to optimum feed. The ratio of feed necessary per pound of chicken meat has fallen through this century, making chicken ever cheaper to produce. By the 1950s, several large companies had integrated feed production with chicken farming and meat processing, so that only a few large corporations controlled a high percentage of the chicken produced in this country. These major producers each slaughter millions of chickens a week.

Commercial chicken
production

The production complex

Chicken production is typically carried out at so-called complexes. Each complex contains a feed mill, a hatchery, a processing plant, and chicken farms where the chicks are raised, usually in a 30-40 mi (48.3-64.4 km) radius from the processing plant. Contract farmers receive chicks from the hatchery, and house them in climate-controlled chicken houses. The houses are typically 400 x 50 ft (122 x 15.24 m), and hold up to 20,000 chickens. The interior is open, with no cages or partitions. When the chickens are old enough for slaughter, they are collected and shipped to the processing plant.

The hatchery

• Broiler chickens are bred especially for meatiness, quick growth, and weight gain. Most chickens used for meat in this country are a hybrid of Comish males and White Rock females. The hatchery houses a flock of thousands of chickens. The hatchery building is a large open space similar to the house where broilers are raised, except it contains many small houses set inside it, which look like miniature versions of the traditional chicken coop. When the hens are ready to lay, they seek shelter in the coop. The eggs are collected from the coops and taken to incubate. The breeder hens live for about 45 weeks, after which they are no longer considered productive. These "spent" hens are slaughtered and their meat is usually used for pet food or bought by food companies that use cooked, diced meat (such as in soups).

Incubation

• The eggs are placed in large walk-in incubators. The eggs are kept warm and periodically rotated by machine. They begin to hatch in about 20 days. Shortly before hatching, the eggs are transferred to drawers. Many processors now inoculate chicks for diseases in ovo, that is, in the shell before they hatch. This is usually done three days before hatching. The chicks peck their way out of their shells when they are ready. For their first several days of life, the chicks are still absorbing nutrients from their yolk sacs, so they do not need food at this time. Trays of newly hatched chicks are wheeled on carts to an inoculation area, where they are sprayed with a mist of vaccine against common diseases. Some producers "debeak" the chicks at this point, which actually means clipping the sharp tip off the beak. This prevents the birds from damaging each other by pecking. This practice was discontinued at some large producers in the late 1990s, as for the most part the growing chicks are not overly aggressive, and debeaking was deemed costly and unnecessary. Next, the chicks are shipped to the nearby "grow-out" farms.

Growing out

• The chicks live in large houses which hold as many as 20,000 birds. These grow-out houses are kept at about 85° F (29.4° C) through heating and ventilation controls. The birds are not caged, and typically they are provided with approximately 0.8 sq ft per bird. The floor of the house is covered with a dry bedding material such as wood chips, rice hulls, or peanut shells. The birds are fed a diet of chicken feed, which is typically 70% corn, 20% soy, and 10% other ingredients such as vitamins and minerals. Broiler chickens in the United States are not fed any steroids or hormones. Sick birds are treated with antibiotics or other medications. These birds then go through a withdrawal period before slaughter, to make sure no medication residue remains in their meat. The birds are usually watered through nipple drinkers, so that they don't spill and wet their bedding.

Collecting

• The chicks live in the growing-out houses for about six weeks. Broiler chickens have been bred for excessive weight gain, especially in their breasts and thighs. At six weeks, the chicks usually weigh about 4 lb (1.8 kg), and are ready for slaughter. Collecting of the chickens is usually done at night. Though a variety of mechanical collectors have been developed, such as vacuum devices and plow-like chicken pushers, the simplest and most effective way to get the chickens crated for transport to the processing plant is to have farm employees enter the house and gather the birds by hand. The workers catch the birds and stuff them into cabinet-like boxes. The boxes are stacked, and a driver with a forklift picks them up and loads them onto a waiting truck. The boxed chickens are stacked in the truck and driven to the processing plant. The processing center of the chicken complex is generally no more than 30-40 mi (48.3-64.4 km) from the grow-out farm, so that the birds do not have to be driven an excessive distance.

Slaughter

• At the processing plant, workers take the birds from their boxes and hang them by their feet on a conveyor belt. In a typical process, the birds on the conveyor are first passed through a vat of electrified salt water called a stun cabinet. About 20 birds occupy the stun cabinet at one time, and they remain in the water for about seven seconds. The mild electrical current in the water stuns or paralyses the birds. Next, the birds are conveyed to an automatic neck cutter—rotating blades that sever the two carotid arteries. The birds' carcasses hang until all the blood has drained.

Defeathering and evisceration

• The carcasses are then briefly immersed in hot water to scald the skins. This makes removal of the feathers easier. The carcasses move to automatic feather pickers, which are moving rubber fingers that rub off most of the feathers. Then the carcasses are scalded a second time and run through another feather picker. Lastly, a specialized machine removes the wing feathers. The defeathered carcasses next pass to a washer, which scrubs the outside of the body. The feet and head are cut off, and the carcass is conveyed to the evisceration area. Next, the carcass is suspended in shackles by the feet and neck, cut open, and the viscera (internal organs) are removed. When the carcass is empty, it is washed again inside and out by a multiple-nozzled sprayer.

Chilling and cutting

• The cleaned carcasses are sent down a / chute and immersed in a "chiller" of cooled, chlorinated water for 40-50 minutes. The entire slaughter process takes only about an hour, and the bulk of that time is taken up by the chilling. The internal temperature of the chicken must be brought down to 40° F (4.4° C) or lower before further processing. The chilled carcasses are then passed to a cutting room, where workers cut them into parts, unless they are to be packaged whole. Some carcasses may be cooked and the cooked meat removed and diced for foods such as chicken pot pie or soups. Meat from backs, necks, and wings may be processed separately for sale in other meat products such as hot dogs or cold cuts. In whatever format, the meat is packaged by workers at the processing plant, loaded into cases, and stored in a temperature-controlled warehouse.

Quality Control

Quality control is a particularly important issue in poultry farming because the end product is raw meat, which has the potential to carry disease-causing microorganisms. To prevent diseases in the chickens themselves, the chicks are vaccinated for common avian diseases. Veterinarians visit the growing-out farms and tend to any sick birds. Corporations that contract with the growing-out farms also typically send a service technician out on a weekly visit to each farm to monitor conditions.

Quality control at chicken-processing plants is done by the company and also by inspectors from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. A USDA inspector is required to be in the plant whenever chickens are being slaughtered. The government inspector examines the birds both before and after slaughter for obvious signs of disease and for injury, such as broken wings. The meat from injured parts is not usable.

In a typical process, there are two critical control points where the company continually monitors conditions. There may be additional control points as well. The first critical control point is just before the cleaned carcass goes to the chiller. An inspector pulls carcasses at random and visually inspects them under bright light. No fecal matter is allowed on the carcass at this point. If any is found in the random check, the production line must be stopped and all the birds that have gone through the chiller since the last inspection must be rewashed and chilled. The second critical control point is when the birds come out of the chiller. The internal temperature of the carcass must be 40° F (4.4° C) or lower at this stage. Inspectors make random sample checks to verify internal temperatures. Though these are the most important control points, each plant designs its own quality control program, and inspectors may also periodically verify the temperature of the scalding water, check the automatic equipment, and whatever else the company deems necessary.

Until 1998, USDA inspectors at chicken processing plants were required to do only what is called an organaleptic test of the chickens before and after slaughter. This translates to looking and smelling; that is, inspectors verified that the birds were disease-free and healthy by looking them over and perhaps giving the carcass a quick sniff.

In 1998, the USDA instituted a new quality control program for all meat processors known as Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points, or HACCP. Under HACCP, in addition to the organaleptic method, inspectors are also required to take periodic microbiological tests to look for dangerous bacteria. The most problematic bacteria in chicken meat are salmonella. Though this organism is killed with proper cooking of the meat, it can cause illness if the consumer does not handle the meat properly. In the 1980s, 50% of all chicken in the United States was purported to be infected with salmonella. The industry altered its quality control procedures, and brought the incidence down to 16% in 1996, and to below 10% in 1998, according to the USDA. Under HACCP, chicken must be randomly tested for salmonella at the production plant, and the rate of infection must be lower than 20%. Also under HACCP, USDA inspectors have the authority to shut down plants that they deem dirty or unsafe. The plant is not allowed to re-open until it comes up with a plan for remedying the situation. Some incidents that caused chicken processing plants to be shut in 1998 included carcasses falling on the floor, rodent infestation of the facility, and most commonly, failure to prevent fecal contamination.

Byproducts/Waste

Many of the byproducts of chicken slaughter can be used. Chicken feet are removed at the processing plant because they are not considered edible in the United States. However, chicken feet are a delicacy in Asia, and so large amounts of them are exported. The feathers can be ground up and used as a protein supplement in animal feed. Substandard meat is also commonly sold to pet food makers. However, many chickens die before slaughter, either at the growing-out farm or en route to the processing plant. These birds are disposed of in landfills. Sick or deformed chicks are culled—taken from the flock and killed (usually by wringing the neck)—after hatching, and these bodies must also be disposed. Unused viscera and parts also produce waste in chicken processing.

A significant waste produced in chicken farming is the feces of the birds. Because the flocks are so large, with 20,000 birds typical for a broiler growing-out farm, the amount of feces is enormous. Decomposing poultry manure produces ammonia, an irritating gas that can cause disease and distress in poultry workers and in the chickens themselves if chicken houses are not adequately cleaned and ventilated. Flies are attracted to chicken manure, and large-scale broiler farming may cause an unwelcome increase in the fly population in surrounding areas. The odor associated with large-scale chicken farming can also be a problem for neighbors. Of more concern than odor is the threat to water quality by run-off from chicken farming. Some chicken manure is used as fertilizer for crops, and when it rains, excessive nitrogen and phosphorus are washed into nearby bodies of water. Outbreaks of a harmful bacteria in the Chesapeake Bay area in 1997 were blamed on water conditions caused by run-off from chicken farms. To control run-off, chicken producers may opt to alter the feed they give their broilers, adding enzymes that help breakdown some of the nutrients in the waste.

Where to Learn More

Books

Davis, Karen. Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs Summertown, Tennessee: Book Publishing Company, 1996.

Smith, Page, and Daniel, Charles. The Chicken Book. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.

Periodicals

Gordon, John Steele. "The Chicken Story." American Heritage (September 1996).

"Poultry Growers Unite to Address Waste Issue." New York Times (August 25, 1998).

Sharpe, Rochelle. "U.S. Shut 34 Meat and Poultry Plants in Quarter Due to Sanitation or Safety ."Wall Street Journal (May 8,1998).

[Article by: Angela Woodward]

Domestic fowl, Gallus domesticus. A 150-g portion is a rich source of protein and niacin; a good source of copper and selenium; a source of iron and vitamins B₁, B₂, and B₆. There are differences between the white (breast) and dark (leg) meat, the former being lower in fat but also lower in iron and vitamin B₂. Of a 150-g portion of boiled chicken, the white meat supplies 0.9 mg of iron, 0.09 mg of vitamin B₁, 0.18 mg of vitamin B₂, 7.5 g of fat, of which one-third is saturated; the dark meat supplies 3.8 mg of iron, 0.1 mg of vitamin B₁, 0.4 mg of vitamin B₂, 15 g of fat, of which one-third is saturated.

Poussin or spring chicken is a young bird, 4-6 weeks old, weighing 250-300 g. See also broiler chicken.

History tells us that today's chickens are descendants of wild fowl that roamed the dense jungles of primeval Asia. Thousands of years later, France's King Henry IV stated in his coronation speech that he hoped each peasant in his realm would have "a chicken in his pot every Sunday" (a quote later paraphrased by President Herbert Hoover). It surprises many people that chicken wasn't always the reasonably priced meat it is today. Until after World War II, only the affluent (and chicken farmers) could manage even the proverbial Sunday chicken. Today, thanks to modern production methods, almost anyone can afford this versatile fowl, which provides not only meat and eggs but feathers as well. Chickens fall into several classifications. The broiler-fryer can weigh up to 31⁄2 pounds and is usually around 21⁄2 months old. These chickens, as the name implies, are best when broiled or fried. The more flavorful roasters have a higher fat content and therefore are perfect for roasting and rotisserie cooking. They usually range between 21⁄2 and 5 pounds and can be up to 8 months old. Stewing chickens (also called hens, boiling fowl and just plain fowl) usually range in age from 10 to 18 months and can weigh from 3 to 6 pounds. Their age makes them more flavorful but also less tender, so they're best cooked with moist heat, such as in stewing or braising. A capon is a rooster that is castrated when quite young (usually before 8 weeks), fed a fattening diet and brought to market before it's 10 months old. Ranging from 4 to 10 pounds, capons are full-breasted with tender, juicy, flavorful meat that is particularly suited to roasting. Rock Cornish hen, also called Rock Cornish game hen, is a hybrid of Cornish and White Rock chickens. These miniature chickens weigh up to 21⁄2 pounds and are 4 to 6 weeks old. Because of the relatively small amount of meat to bone, each hen is usually just enough for one serving. Rock Cornish hens are best broiled or roasted. Squab Chicken (poussin in French), different from the true squab, is a very small, 4- to 6-week-old chicken that weighs no more than 11⁄2 pounds. These tiny birds are best broiled, grilled or roasted. The cock or rooster is an older bird and therefore rather tough. It's best used in soups or to make broths. Free-range chickens are the elite of the poultry world in that, in contrast to the mass-produced birds allotted 1 square foot of space, each range chicken has double that area indoors plus the freedom to roam outdoors. They're fed a special vegetarian diet free (according to most range chicken breeders) of antibiotics, animal byproducts, hormones and growth enhancers. The special diet and freedom of movement is thought by some to give this fowl a fuller, more "chickeny" flavor; the added amenities also make these birds much more expensive than mass-produced chickens. Free-range chickens average 41⁄2 pounds and are usually around 10 to 12 weeks old. Chicken grades: The government grades chicken quality with USDA classifications A, B and C. The highest grade is A, and is generally what is found in markets. Grade B chickens are less meaty and well finished; grade C is usually reserved for scrawny turkeys. The grade stamp can be found within a shield on the package wrapping, or sometimes on a tag attached to the bird's wing. Chicken is available in markets throughout the year either fresh or frozen, and whole or cut into parts. The neck and giblets (liver, gizzard and heart) are either packaged separately and placed in a whole bird's body cavity, or sold individually. Choose a meaty, full-breasted chicken with plump, short legs. The skin-which can range from cream-colored to yellow, depending on the breed and the chicken's diet-should be smooth and soft. Avoid chickens with an off odor, or with skin that's bruised or torn. Store chicken in the coldest part of the refrigerator. If packaged tightly in cellophane, loosen packaging or remove and loosely rewrap chicken in waxed paper. Remove any giblets from the body cavity and store separately. Refrigerate raw chicken up to 2 days, cooked chicken up to 3 days. For maximum flavor, freeze raw chicken no longer than 2 months, cooked chicken up to a month. Salmonella bacteria are present on most poultry (though only about 4 percent of salmonella poisonings are chicken-related). To avoid any chance of bacterial contamination, it's important to handle raw chicken with care. The first rule is never to eat chicken in its raw state. After cutting or working with raw chicken, thoroughly wash utensils, cutting tools, cutting board and your hands. Cook boneless chicken until the internal temperature is 179°F, bone-in chicken to 180°F. Don't let any raw juice come in contact with cooked chicken. The versatile chicken can be prepared in almost any way imaginable, including baking, broiling, boiling, roasting, frying, braising, barbecuing and stewing. Boning chicken will shorten any cooking time but will also slightly diminish the flavor. Chicken is an excellent source of protein, and a good to fair source of niacin and iron. White meat and chicken without skin have fewer calories.

Idioms beginning with chicken:
chicken out

See also count one's chickens; go to bed with (the chickens); like a chicken with its head cut off; no spring chicken.

1. a young domestic fowl up to the age at which the bird can survive without supplementary heat and feed. In some poultry industries that is about 4 weeks. However, the endpoint varies with the type of husbandry practiced. In the North American poultry industry a chicken is any domestic fowl up to about 20 weeks of age.
2. any young bird.

• c. anemia — bone marrow hypoplasia with thymic and bursal atrophy in young chicks caused by a circovirus (genus Gyrovirus). The disease is characterized by weakness, pallor and a high mortality rate. Secondary bacterial, viral and fungal infections are commonplace including hemorrhagic syndrome, anemia, dermatitis and blue wing disease.
• c. body louse — menacanthus stramineus.
• c. bronchitis — see avian infectious bronchitis.
• day old c's — newly hatched chicks are delivered in large flat cardboard boxes from the multiplier to the broiler grower—the universal means of shipping live chickens.
• c. edema disease — a disease of broiler chickens fed on a diet containing fat contaminated by one of several toxic factors which cause hepatic necrosis. It is manifested clinically by drooping, dyspnea, death. At necropsy there are large accumulations of fluid in body cavities and a swollen liver and kidneys. The disease is caused by a toxic fat containing dioxin added to the ration of the birds. Called also toxic fat disease.
• c. embryo chondrodystrophy — caused by nutritional deficiency of manganese. Characterized by short, thick legs, short wings, parrot beak, retarded down and body growth.
• c. embryo lethal organ (CELO) virus — see quail bronchitis.
• c.-fat clot — clots that develop after death; largely devoid of red blood cells. More common in animals that have had anemia or in which blood sedimentation was increased. Seen more often in horses than in other species.
• c. fluff louse — goniocotes gallinae.
• c. head louse — see cyclotogaster heterographa.
• c. hemorrhagic syndrome — see inclusion body hepatitis.
• c. louse — see menopon pallidum, menacanthus stramineus.
• c. mite — see dermanyssus gallinae.
• c. pox — see avipoxvirus.
• c. sexing — usually carried out on day-old chickens by examining inside the vent for small eminences. Up to 1000 chickens can be sexed per hour with 98% accuracy.
• sticky c. — sticky, edematous chickens caused by hatching at too low or too high humidities.

This article is about the animal. For chicken as human food, see Chicken (food). For other uses, see Chicken (disambiguation).

"Gallus gallus domesticus" redirects here. For other subspecies, see Red Junglefowl.

This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. WikiProject Birds or the Birds Portal may be able to help recruit one. (September 2009)

Chicken
A rooster (left) and hen (right)
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Galliformes
Family:	Phasianidae
Genus:	Gallus
Species:	Gallus gallus
Subspecies:	Gallus gallus domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonyms
Chicken : Rooster (m), Hen (f)

The chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) is a domesticated fowl. As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, and with a population of more than 24 billion in 2003,^[1] there are more chickens in the world than any other bird. Humans keep chickens primarily as a source of food, consuming both their meat and their eggs.

Conventional wisdom has held that the chicken was domesticated in India,^[2] but recent evidence suggests that domestication of the chicken was already under way in Vietnam over 10,000 years ago.^[2] From India the domesticated fowl made its way to the Persianized kingdom of Lydia in western Asia Minor, domestic fowl were imported to Greece by the fifth century BCE.^[3] Fowl had been known in Egypt since the 18th Dynasty, with the "bird that lays every day" having come to Egypt from the land between Syria and Shinar, Babylonia, according to the annals of Tutmose III.^[4]

The chicken is believed to have descended from both the Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and the Grey Junglefowl (G. sonneratii), though hybrids of both wild types usually tend to be sterile.^{[clarification needed][citation needed]} Recent genetic work has revealed that the genotype for yellow skin present in the domestic fowl is not present in what is otherwise its closest kin, the Red Junglefowl. It is most likely that the yellow skin trait in domestic birds originated in the Grey Junglefowl.^[5]

Contents 1 Terminology 2 General biology and habitat 3 Courting 4 Breeding 4.1 Origins 4.2 Current 5 Poultry farming 6 Artificial incubation 7 Chickens as food 8 Chickens as pets 9 Chicken diseases and ailments 10 Chickens in religion and mythology 11 Chickens in history 12 Chickens in South America 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links

Terminology

In the UK and Canada adult male chickens are known as cocks whereas in America and Australia they are called roosters. Males under a year old are cockerels.^[6] Castrated roosters are called capons (though both surgical and chemical castration are now illegal in some parts of the world). Females over a year old are known as hens, and younger females are pullets.^[7] In Australia and New Zealand (also sometimes in Britain), there is a generic term chook (pronounced /ˈtʃʊk/: rhymes with "book") to describe all ages and both sexes.^[8] Babies are called chicks, and the meat is called chicken.

"Chicken" was originally the word only for chicks, and the species as a whole was then called domestic fowl, or just fowl. This use of "chicken" survives in the phrase "Hen and Chickens", sometimes used as a British public house or theatre name, and to name groups of one large and many small rocks or islands in the sea (see for example Hen and Chicken Islands).

General biology and habitat

Chickens are omnivores.^[9] In the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and even larger animals such as lizards or young mice^[10].

Chickens may live for five to eleven years, depending on the breed.^[11] In commercial intensive farming, a meat chicken generally lives only six weeks before slaughter.^[12] A free range or organic meat chicken will usually be slaughtered at about 14 weeks. Hens of special laying breeds may produce as many as 300 eggs a year. After 12 months, the hen's egg-laying ability starts to decline, and commercial laying hens are then slaughtered and used in baby foods, pet foods, pies and other processed foods.^[13] The world's oldest chicken, according to the Guinness Book of World Records, died of heart failure when she was 16 years old.^[14]

The adult rooster can be distinguished from the hen by its comb

Roosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plumage, marked by long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks and backs (the hackles and saddle)—these are often colored differently from the hackles and saddles of females.

However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright, the cock has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hen's. The identification must be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male's legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids the male and female chicks may be differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, but in most breeds these are more prominent in males.

A muff or beard is a mutation found in several chicken breeds which causes extra feathering under the chicken's face, giving the appearance of a beard.

Wild Red Junglefowl- Male at 23 Mile near Jayanti in Buxa Tiger Reserve in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, India.

Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance flight, although lighter birds are generally capable of flying for short distances, such as over fences or into trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens will sometimes fly to explore their surroundings, but usually do so only to flee perceived danger.

Chickens are gregarious birds and live together as a flock. They have a communal approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a "pecking order", with dominant individuals having priority for access to food and nesting locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until a new pecking order is established. Adding hens—especially younger birds—to an existing flock, can lead to violence and injury.^[15]

Hens will try to lay in nests that already contain eggs, and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own. Some farmers use fake eggs made from plastic or stone (or golf balls) to encourage hens to lay in a particular location. The result of this behavior is that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every bird.

Hens can also be extremely stubborn about always laying in the same location. It is not unknown for two (or more) hens to try to share the same nest at the same time. If the nest is small, or one of the hens is particularly determined, this may result in chickens trying to lay on top of each other.

Skull of a chicken three weeks old. Here the opisthotic bone appears in the occipital region, as in the adult Chelonian. bo = Basi-occipital, bt = Basi-temporal, eo = Opisthotic, f = Frontal, fm = Foramen magnum, fo = Fontanella, oc = Occipital condyle, op = Opisthotic, p = Parietal, pf = Post-frontal, sc = Sinus canal in supra-occipital, so = Supra-occpital, sq = Squamosal, 8 = Exit of vagus nerve.

Roosters crowing (a loud and sometimes shrill call) is a territorial signal to other roosters. However, crowing may also result from sudden disturbances within their surroundings. Hens cluck loudly after laying an egg, and also to call their chicks.

In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds "turned on" a chicken recessive gene, talpid2, and found that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, like those found in ancient bird fossils. John Fallon, the overseer of the project, stated that chickens have "...retained the ability to make teeth, under certain conditions..."^[16]

Courting

When a rooster finds food, he may call the other chickens to eat it first. He does this by clucking in a high pitch as well as picking up and dropping the food. This behavior can also be observed in mother hens, calling their chicks. In some cases the rooster will drag the wing opposite the hen on the ground, while circling her. This is part of chicken courting ritual and has been called a "dance".^[17] The dance triggers a response in the hen's brain,^[17] and when the hen responds to his "call", the rooster may mount the hen and proceed with the fertilization.

Breeding

Origins

Formerly, phenotypic diversity of modern chickens led to a belief of polyphyletic origins.^[18] According to genetic researchers, all modern chicken genes can be derived from the subspecies of Gallus found in northeast Thailand.^[19][20] This is supported by archaeological findings. Researchers have found chickens' bones in unusual amounts and out of natural jungle range, thus denoting a breeding place. Bones of domestic chickens have been found about 6000-4000 BC in Yangshao and Peiligan, China, while the Holocene climate was not naturally suitable for the Gallus species.^[21] Archaeological data is lacking for Thailand and southeast Asia.

Later traces are found about 3000-2000 BC in Hrappa and Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan,^[22] and -according to linguistic researchers- in Austronesian populations traveling across southeast Asia and Oceania. A northern road spread chicken to the Tarim basin of central Asia, modern day Iran. The chicken reached Europe (Romania, Turkey, Greece, Urkraine) about 3000BC, and the Indus Valley about 2500 BC.^[19] Introduction into Western Europe came far later, about the 1st millennium BC. Phoenicians spread chickens along the Mediterranean coasts, to Iberia. Breeding increased under the Roman Empire, and was reduced in the Middle Ages.^[19] Middle East traces of chicken go back to a little earlier than 2000 BC, in Syria; chicken went southward only in the 1st millennium BC. The chicken reached Egypt for purposes of cock fighting about 1400BC, and became widely bred only in Ptolemaic Egypt (about 300 BC).^[19] Little is known about the chicken's introduction into Africa. Three possible ways of introduction in about the early first millennium AD could have been through the Egyptian Nile Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers, across the Sahara. The earliest known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africa and date back to the middle of the first millennium AD.^[19] Domestic chicken in the Americas before Western conquest is still an ongoing discussion, but blue-egged chicken, found only in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American chickens.^[19]

A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes it difficult to lay out a clear map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better description and genetic analysis of local breeds threatened by extinction may also help with research into this area.^[19]

Current

Chicken eggs vary in color depending on the hen, typically ranging from bright white to shades of brown and even blue, green, and recently reported purple (found in South Asia) (Araucana varieties).

Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete, and they will then incubate all the eggs. Many domestic hens will also do this – and are then said to "go broody". The broody hen will stop laying and instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually about 12 eggs). She will "sit" or "set" on the nest, protesting or pecking in defense if disturbed or removed, and she will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe. While brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a constant temperature and humidity, as well as turning the eggs regularly during the first part of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, an owner may place many artificial eggs in the nest, or to stop it they may place the hen in an elevated cage with an open wire floor.

At the end of the incubation period (about 21 days),^[17] the eggs, if fertile, will hatch. Development of the egg starts only when incubation begins, so they all hatch within a day or two of each other, despite perhaps being laid over a period of two weeks or so. Before hatching, the hen can hear the chicks peeping inside the eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shells. The chick begins by "pipping" – pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt end of the egg, usually on the upper side. It will then rest for some hours, absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood supply from the membrane beneath the shell (used earlier for breathing through the shell). It then enlarges the hole, gradually turning round as it goes, and eventually severing the blunt end of the shell completely to make a lid. It crawls out of the remaining shell, and its wet down dries out in the warmth of the nest.

A day-old chick

The hen will usually stay on the nest for about two days after the first egg hatches, and during this time the newly-hatched chicks live off the egg yolk they absorb just before hatching. Any eggs not fertilized by a rooster will not hatch, and the hen eventually loses interest in these and leaves the nest. After hatching, the hen fiercely guards the chicks, and will brood them when necessary to keep them warm, at first often returning to the nest at night. She leads them to food and water – she will call them to edible items, but rarely feeds them directly. She continues to care for them until they are several weeks old, when she will gradually lose interest and eventually start to lay again.

Modern egg-laying breeds rarely go broody, and those that do often stop part-way through the incubation. However, some "utility" (general purpose) breeds, such as the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, do regularly go broody, and they make excellent mothers, not only for chicken eggs but also for those of other species—even those with much smaller or larger eggs and different incubation periods, such as quail, pheasants, turkeys or geese. Chicken eggs can also be hatched under a broody duck, with varied success.

Poultry farming

Main article: Poultry farming

A free range rooster on a farm

More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of food, for both their meat and their eggs. Chickens farmed for meat are called broiler chickens, whilst those farmed for eggs are called egg-laying hens. In total, the UK alone consumes over 29 million eggs per day. Some hens can produce over 300 eggs a year. Chickens will naturally live for 6 or more years, but broiler chickens typically take less than six weeks to reach slaughter size. For laying hens, they are slaughtered after about 12 months, when the hens' productivity starts to decline.

The vast majority of poultry are raised using intensive farming techniques. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry meat, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.[3] One alternative to intensive poultry farming is free range farming.

Friction between these two main methods has led to long term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the environment, creates human health risks and is inhumane. Advocates of intensive farming say that their highly efficient systems save land and food resources due to increased productivity, stating that the animals are looked after in state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.

Artificial incubation

An egg incubator.

Chicken egg incubation can successfully occur artificially as well. Nearly all fertilized chicken eggs will hatch after 21 days of good conditions - 99.5 °F (37.5 °C) and around 55% relative humidity (increase to 70% in the last three days of incubation to help soften egg shell). Eggs must be turned regularly (usually three to eight times each week) during the first part of the incubation. If the eggs aren't turned, the embryo inside will stick to the shell and may hatch with physical defects. Some incubators turn the eggs automatically. This turning mimics the natural process – an incubating hen will stand up several times a day and shift the eggs around with her beak. However, if the egg is turned during the last week of incubation the chick may have difficulty settling in the correct hatching position.

Many commercial incubators are industrial-sized with shelves holding tens of thousands of eggs at a time, with rotation of the eggs a fully automated process. Home incubators are boxes holding from half a dozen to 75 eggs; they are usually electrically powered, but in the past some were heated with an oil or paraffin lamp.

Chickens as food

Main article: Chicken (food)

Roasted chicken.

The meat of the chicken, also called "chicken", is a type of poultry meat. Because of its relatively low cost, chicken is one of the most used meats in the world. Nearly all parts of the bird can be used for food, and the meat can be cooked in many different ways. Popular chicken dishes include roasted chicken, fried chicken, chicken soup, Buffalo wings, tandoori chicken, butter chicken, and chicken rice. Chicken is also a staple of fast food restaurants.

Chickens as pets

Main article: Chickens as pets

Chickens can make good companion animals and can be tamed by hand feeding, but roosters can sometimes become aggressive and noisy. Some have advised against keeping them around very young children. Although certain breeds, such as silkies and many bantam varieties are generally docile and are often recommended as good pets around children.^[23] Some people find chickens' behaviour entertaining and educational.^[24]

Baby chickens, dyed unnatural colors, sold as pets at a Market in Oaxaca, Mexico.

While some cities in the United States allow chickens as pets, the practice is not approved in all localities. Some communities ban only roosters, allowing the quieter hens. The so called "urban hen movement" harks back to the days when chicken keeping was much more common, and involves the keeping of small groups of hens in areas where they may not be expected, such as closely populated cities and suburban areas. City ordinances, zoning regulations or health boards may determine whether chickens may be kept.^[25] A general requirement is that the birds be confined to the owner's property, not allowed to roam freely. There may be strictures on the size of the property or how far from human dwellings a coop may be located, etc.^[26]

In Asia, chickens with striking plumage have long been kept for ornamental purposes, including feather-footed varieties such as the Cochin from Vietnam, the Silkie from China, and the extremely long-tailed Phoenix from Japan. Asian ornamental varieties were imported into the United States and Great Britain in the late 1800s. Distinctive American varieties of chickens have been developed from these Asian breeds. Poultry fanciers began keeping these ornamental birds for exhibition, a practice that continues today. Individuals in rural communities commonly keep chickens for both ornamental and practical value.

Chicken diseases and ailments

Chickens are susceptible to several parasites, including lice, mites, ticks, fleas, and intestinal worms, as well as other diseases. (Despite the name, they are not affected by Chickenpox; the illness is generally restricted to humans.^[27])

Some of the common diseases that affect chickens are shown below:

Name	Common Name	Caused by
Aspergillosis		fungi
Avian influenza	bird flu	virus
Histomoniasis	Blackhead disease	protozoal parasite
Botulism		toxin
Cage Layer Fatigue		mineral deficiencies, lack of exercise
Campylobacteriosis		tissue injury in the gut
Coccidiosis		parasites
Colds		virus
Crop Bound		improper feeding
Dermanyssus gallinae	Red mite	parasite
Egg bound		oversized egg
Erysipelas		bacteria
Fatty Liver Hemorrhagic Syndrome		high-energy food
Fowl Cholera		bacteria
Fowl pox		virus
Fowl Typhoid		bacteria
Gallid herpesvirus 1 or Infectious Laryngotracheitis		virus
Gapeworm	Syngamus trachea	worms
Infectious Bronchitis		virus
Infectious Bursal Disease	Gumboro	virus
Infectious Coryza		bacteria
Lymphoid leukosis		Avian leukosis virus
Marek's disease		virus
Moniliasis	Yeast Infection or Thrush	fungi
Mycoplasmas		bacteria-like organisms
Newcastle disease		virus
Necrotic Enteritis		bacteria
Omphalitis	Mushy chick disease	umbilical cord stump
Peritonitis[28]		Infection in abdomen from egg yolk
Prolapse
Psittacosis		bacteria
Pullorum	Salmonella	bacteria
Scaly leg		parasites
Squamous cell carcinoma		cancer
Tibial dyschondroplasia		speed growing
Toxoplasmosis		protozoal parasite
Ulcerative Enteritis		bacteria

Chickens in religion and mythology

In Indonesia the chicken has great significance during the Hindu cremation ceremony. A chicken is considered a channel for evil spirits which may be present during the ceremony. A chicken is tethered by the leg and kept present at the ceremony for its duration to ensure that any evil spirits present during the ceremony go into the chicken and not the family members present. The chicken is then taken home and returns to its normal life.

In ancient Greece, the chicken was not normally used for sacrifices, perhaps because it was still considered an exotic animal. Because of its valour, the cock is found as an attribute of Ares, Heracles, and Athena. The alleged last words of Socrates as he died from hemlock poisoning, as recounted by Plato, were "Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?", signifying that death was a cure for the illness of life.

The Greeks believed that even lions were afraid of cocks. Several of Aesop's Fables reference this belief.

In the New Testament, Jesus prophesied the betrayal by Peter: "Jesus answered, 'I tell you, Peter, before the rooster crows today, you will deny three times that you know me.'" (Luke 22:34) Thus it happened (Luke 22:61), and Peter cried bitterly. This made the cock a symbol for both vigilance and betrayal.

Earlier, Jesus compares himself to a mother hen when talking about Jerusalem: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing." (Matthew 23:37; also Luke 13:34).

In many Central European folk tales, the devil is believed to flee at the first crowing of a cock.

In traditional Jewish practice, a kosher animal is swung around the head and then slaughtered on the afternoon before Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, in a ritual called kapparos. A chicken or fish is typically used because it is commonly available (and small enough to hold). The sacrifice of the animal is to receive atonement, for the animal symbolically takes on all the person's sins in kapparos. The meat is then donated to the poor. A woman brings a hen for the ceremony, while a man brings a rooster. Although not actually a sacrifice in the biblical sense, the death of the animal reminds the penitent sinner that his or her life is in God's hands.

The Talmud speaks of learning "courtesy toward one's mate" from the rooster. This might refer to the fact that when a rooster finds something good to eat, he calls his hens to eat first.

The chicken is one of the Zodiac symbols of the Chinese calendar. Also in Chinese religion, a cooked chicken as a religious offering is usually limited to ancestor veneration and worship of village deities. Vegetarian deities such as the Buddha are not one of the recipients of such offerings. Under some observations, an offering of chicken is presented with "serious" prayer (while roasted pork is offered during a joyous celebration). In Confucian Chinese Weddings, a chicken can be used as a substitute for one who is seriously ill or not available (e.g. sudden death) to attend the ceremony. A red silk scarf is placed on the chicken's head and a close relative of the absent bride/groom holds the chicken so the ceremony may proceed. However, this practice is rare today.

A cockatrice was supposed to have been born from an egg laid by a rooster.

Chickens in history

The Red Junglefowl

The first pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian pottery of the 7th century BCE. The poet Cratinus (mid-5th century BCE, according to the later Greek author Athenaeus) calls the chicken "the Persian alarm". In Aristophanes's comedy The Birds (414 BCE) a chicken is called "the Median bird", which points to an introduction from the East. Pictures of chickens are found on Greek red figure and black-figure pottery.

In ancient Greece, chickens were still rare and were a rather prestigious food for symposia. Delos seems to have been a centre of chicken breeding.

An early domestication of chickens in Southeast Asia is probable, since the word for domestic chicken (*manuk) is part of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian language (see Austronesian languages). Chickens, together with dogs and pigs, were the domestic animals of the Lapita culture, the first Neolithic culture of Oceania.

Chickens were spread by Polynesian seafarers and reached Easter Island in the 12th century BCE, where they were the only domestic animal, with the possible exception of the Polynesian Rat (Rattus exulans). They were housed in extremely solid chicken coops built from stone.

The Romans used chickens for oracles, both when flying ("ex avibus", Augury) and when feeding ("auspicium ex tripudiis", Alectryomancy). The hen ("gallina") gave a favourable omen ("auspicium ratum"), when appearing from the left (Cic.,de Div. ii.26), like the crow and the owl.

For the oracle "ex tripudiis" according to Cicero (Cic. de Div. ii.34), any bird could be used, but normally only chickens ("pulli") were consulted. The chickens were cared for by the pullarius, who opened their cage and fed them pulses or a special kind of soft cake when an augury was needed. If the chickens stayed in their cage, made noises ("occinerent"), beat their wings or flew away, the omen was bad; if they ate greedily, the omen was good.

In 249 BCE, the Roman general Publius Claudius Pulcher had his chickens thrown overboard when they refused to feed before the battle of Drepana, saying "If they won't eat, perhaps they will drink." He promptly lost the battle against the Carthaginians and 93 Roman ships were sunk. Back in Rome, he was tried for impiety and heavily fined.

In 161 BCE, a law was passed in Rome that forbade the consumption of fattened chickens. It was renewed a number of times, but does not seem to have been successful. Fattening chickens with bread soaked in milk was thought to give especially delicious results. The Roman gourmet Apicius offers 17 recipes for chicken, mainly boiled chicken with a sauce. All parts of the animal are used: the recipes include the stomach, liver, testicles and even the pygostyle (the fatty "tail" of the chicken where the tail feathers attach).

The Roman author Columella gives advice on chicken breeding in his eighth book of his treatise on agriculture. He identifies Tanagrian, Rhodic, Chalkidic and Median (commonly misidentified as Melian) breeds, which have an impressive appearance, a quarrelsome nature and were used for cockfighting by the Greeks. For farming, native (Roman) chickens are to be preferred, or a cross between native hens and Greek cocks. Dwarf chickens are nice to watch because of their size but have no other advantages.

Per Columella, the ideal flock consists of 200 birds, which can be supervised by one person if someone is watching for stray animals. White chickens should be avoided as they are not very fertile and are easily caught by eagles or goshawks. One cock should be kept for five hens. In the case of Rhodian and Median cocks that are very heavy and therefore not much inclined to sex, only three hens are kept per cock. The hens of heavy fowls are not much inclined to brood; therefore their eggs are best hatched by normal hens. A hen can hatch no more than 15-23 eggs, depending on the time of year, and supervise no more than 30 hatchlings. Eggs that are long and pointed give more male, rounded eggs mainly female hatchlings.

Per Columella, chicken coops should face southeast and lie adjacent to the kitchen, as smoke is beneficial for the animals. Coops should consist of three rooms and possess a hearth. Dry dust or ash should be provided for dust-baths.

According to Columella, chicken should be fed on barley groats, small chick-peas, millet and wheat bran, if they are cheap. Wheat itself should be avoided as it is harmful to the birds. Boiled ryegrass (Lollium sp.) and the leaves and seeds of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) can be used as well. Grape marc can be used, but only when the hens stop laying eggs, that is, about the middle of November; otherwise eggs are small and few. When feeding grape marc, it should be supplemented with some bran. Hens start to lay eggs after the winter solstice, in warm places around the first of January, in colder areas in the middle of February. Parboiled barley increases their fertility; this should be mixed with alfalfa leaves and seeds, or vetches or millet if alfalfa is not at hand. Free-ranging chickens should receive two cups of barley daily.

Columella advises farmers to slaughter hens that are older than three years, because they no longer produce sufficient eggs.

Capons were produced by burning out their spurs with a hot iron. The wound was treated with potter's chalk.

For the use of poultry and eggs in the kitchens of ancient Rome see Roman eating and drinking.

Chickens in South America

An unusual variety of chicken that has its origins in South America is the araucana, bred in southern Chile by Mapuche people. Araucanas, some of which are tailless and some of which have tufts of feathers around their ears, lay blue-green eggs. It has long been suggested that they predate the arrival of European chickens brought by the Spanish and are evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Pacific contacts between Asian or Pacific Oceanic peoples, particularly the Polynesians and South America. In 2007, an international team of researchers reported the results of analysis of chicken bones found on the Arauco Peninsula in south central Chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were Pre-Columbian, and DNA analysis showed that they were related to prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia.^[29] These results appeared to confirm that the chickens came from Polynesia and that there were transpacific contacts between Polynesia and South America before Columbus's arrival in the Americas.^[30]

However, a later report looking at the same specimens concluded:

A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.^[31]

See also

• Chicken or the egg
• Chook raffle - a type of raffle where the prize is a chicken.
• Rubber chicken
• Symbolic chickens
• Tastes like chicken
• "Why did the chicken cross the road?"
• Chicken hypnotism
• Chicken coop
• Chicken fat
• Feral chickens
• Gamebird hybrids - hybrids between chickens, peafowl, guineafowl and pheasants
• List of chicken breeds

References

1. ^ according to Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds, Ed. Perrins, Christopher. Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, Ltd., 2003.
2. ^ ^{a b} Sherman, David M. (2002). Tending Animals in the Global Village. Blackwell Publishing. 46. ISBN 0683180517.
3. ^ Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, (Anthea Bell, translator) The History of Food, Ch. 11 "The History of Poultry", revised ed. 2009, p. 306.
4. ^ Howard Carter, "An Ostracon Depicting a Red Jungle-Fowl (The Earliest Known Drawing of the Domestic Cock)" The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 9.1/2 (April 1923), pp. 1-4.
5. ^ Eriksson J, Larson G, Gunnarsson U, Bed'hom B, Tixier-Boichard M, et al. (2008) Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken. PLoS Genet January 23, 2008 [1].
6. ^ cockerel - Definitions from Dictionary.com
7. ^ pullet - Definitions from Dictionary.com
8. ^ "Definition of "chook" in Encarta. The vernacular use is said to be offensive in this dictionary but it may also be used as a term of jocular familiarity". Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQrJia9. 
9. ^ "Info on Chicken Care". ideas4pets. 2003. http://www.ideas-4-pets.com/pages-infopages/pages_id-24/index.html. Retrieved 2008-08-13. 
10. ^ Gerard P.Worrell AKA "Farmer Jerry". "Frequently asked questions about chickens & eggs". Ferry Landing Farm & Apiary. http://gworrell.freeyellow.com/chickenfaq.html. Retrieved 2008-08-13. 
11. ^ The Poultry Guide - A to Z and FAQs
12. ^ Broiler Chickens Fact Sheet // Animals Australia
13. ^ Ten weeks to live | Food and drink | Life and Health
14. ^ Smith, Jamon. Tuscaloosanews.com "World’s oldest chicken starred in magic shows, was on 'Tonight Show’", Tuscaloosa News (Alabama, USA). 6 August 2006. Retrieved on 26 February 2008.
15. ^ Introducing new hens to a flock « Musings from a Stonehead
16. ^ Scientists Find Chickens Retain Ancient Ability to Grow Teeth Ammu Kannampilly, ABC News, 2006-02-27. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
17. ^ ^{a b c} Grandin, Temple; Johnson, Catherine (2005). [69-71 Animals in Translation]. New York, New York: Scribner. ISBN 0743247698. 69-71. 
18. ^ CHOF, p496, citing Crawford 1994
19. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} CHOF : The Cambridge History of Food, 2000, Cambridge University Press, vol.1, pp496-499
20. ^ CHOF, p496, citing Fumihito, 1994
21. ^ CHOF, p496, citing West & Zhou, 1988
22. ^ CHOF, p496, citing Zeuner 1963, Crawford 1984
23. ^ "Clucks and Chooks: A Guide To Keeping Chickens". http://www.henkeeping.co.uk/which.html. 
24. ^ United Poultry Concerns. "Providing a Good Home for Chickens". http://www.upc-online.org/home.html. Retrieved 2009-05-04. 
25. ^ http://www.mypetchicken.com/chickenFAQ.aspx#InViolation
26. ^ My Pet Chicken: Links gives links to regulations of some major U.S. cities that allow chickens.
27. ^ White TM, Gilden DH, Mahalingam R.. "An animal model of varicella virus infection". http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11556693. Retrieved 2009-05-01. 
28. ^ "Clucks and Chooks: guide to keeping chickens". http://www.henkeeping.co.uk. 
29. ^ DNA reveals how the chicken crossed the sea Brendan Borrell, Nature, 5 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
30. ^ A. A. Storey et al., "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0703993104; John Noble Wilford, "First Chickens in Americas were Brought from Polynesia, New York Times, June 5, 2007
31. ^ Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA. Jaime Gongora, Nicolas J. Rawlence, Victor A. Mobegi, Han Jianlin, Jose A. Alcalde, Jose T. Matus, Olivier Hanotte, Chris Moran, J. Austin, Sean Ulm, Atholl J. Anderson, Greger Larson and Alan Cooper, "Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA" PNAS July 29, 2008 vol. 105 no 30[2]

Further reading

• Smith, Page; Charles Daniel (April 2000). The Chicken Book. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 082032213X. 
• Green-Armytage, Stephen (October 2000). Extraordinary Chickens. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0810933438. 

External links

• Information related to Chicken from Wikispecies.

• Media related to Chicken at Wikimedia Commons
• The Wiktionary definition of chicken

v • d • e Chicken Male: Rooster • Female: Hen  • Baby: Chick Synonyms Cock (Australian rooster)  • Capon (castrated male)  • Chicken (meat) As food Fried chicken • Chicken soup • Buffalo wings  • Tandoori chicken  • Butter chicken  • Chicken rice As pet Chicken tractor • Chickweed • Pecking order Breeds Ancona • Brahma • Bresse • Campine • Cornish  • Cochin • Delaware • Dorking • Andalusian  • Hamburg  • Holland • Houdan • Sussex • Vorwerk  • Sebright • Orpington • Dominique In religion, mythology and culture Kapparos • Cockatrice • Cockfighting

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - kylling, grønskolling, [sl] kujon, [sl] pigebarn
adj. - kyllinge-, hønse-, ung, bange, pedantisk
v. intr. - blive bange, tabe hovedet

idioms:

• chicken and egg    ægget og hønen
• chicken feed    kyllingefoder, småpenge
• chicken pox    skoldkopper
• chicken wire    kyllingenet

Nederlands (Dutch)
kip, kippenvlees, lafaard, jonge persoon, kinderspel (waarin moed wordt getest), falen/zich terugtrekken uit angst, laf

Français (French)
n. - (Agric, Zool) poulet, poule, (Culin) poulet, trouillard, poule mouillée, premier qui se dégonfle (jeu)
adj. - trouillard
v. intr. - se dégonfler

idioms:

• chicken and egg    (être) l'histoire de l'¯uf et de la poule
• chicken feed    (Agric) nourriture pour volaille, bagatelle, somme dérisoire
• chicken pox    varicelle
• chicken wire    grillage

Deutsch (German)
n. - Huhn, Hähnchen, Küken, Feigling
adj. - feige
v. - (Slang) kneifen

idioms:

• chicken and egg    Huhn-Ei-(Frage)
• chicken feed    Hühnerfutter, (ugs.) lächerliche Summe
• chicken pox    (med.) Windpocken
• chicken wire    Maschendraht

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - κοτόπουλο, (μτφ.) πρωτάρης, φοβητσιάρης
adj. - φοβητσιάρης
v. - κωλώνω, δειλιάζω

idioms:

• chicken and egg    (για πρόβλημα) του τύπου "η κότα ή το αβγό", άλυτο
• chicken feed    τροφή πουλερικών, (καθομ.) αμελητέο ποσό, ψιχία
• chicken pox    (παθολ.) ανεμοβλογιά
• chicken wire    ψιλό συρματόπλεγμα

Italiano (Italian)
gallina, pollo, vigliacco, codardo, fifone, vile, ritrarsi da

idioms:

• chicken and egg    l'uovo e la gallina
• chicken feed    cretinate, stupidaggini
• chicken pox    varicella
• chicken wire    reticolato

Português (Portuguese)
n. - galinha (f), frango (m)
adj. - inexperiente, covarde
v. - acovardar-se

idioms:

• chicken and egg    o ovo e a galinha
• chicken feed    ninharia (f)
• chicken pox    catapora (f) (Med.)
• chicken wire    tela (f) de arame

Русский (Russian)
курица, курятина, трус, трусливый

idioms:

• chicken and egg    трудно отделить причину от следствий
• chicken feed    копейки
• chicken pox    ветрянка
• chicken wire    проволока для ограды

Español (Spanish)
n. - gallina, pollo, milanesa de pollo
adj. - cobarde, cagón
v. intr. - acobardarse

idioms:

• chicken and egg    ¿qué fue antes, el huevo o la gallina?
• chicken feed    una miseria, calderilla, muy poco dinero
• chicken pox    varicela
• chicken wire    alambrera

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - kyckling, tjej (sl.), lilla vän, feg stackare (sl.)
adj. - feg (vard.), kyckling-, höns-
v. - bli rädd

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
鸡, 鸡肉, 小鸟, 少女, 小妞, 鸡肉的, 幼小的, 鸡味的, 细小的, 胆小, 畏缩, 因胆小而放弃

idioms:

• chicken and egg    亲子丹, 鸡与蛋谁先确定
• chicken feed    低微的薪水, 零钱
• chicken pox    水痘
• chicken wire    铁丝织网

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 雞, 雞肉, 小鳥, 少女, 小妞
adj. - 雞肉的, 幼小的, 雞味的, 細小的
v. intr. - 膽小, 畏縮, 因膽小而放棄

idioms:

• chicken and egg    親子丹, 雞與蛋誰先確定
• chicken feed    低微的薪水, 零錢
• chicken pox    水痘
• chicken wire    鐵絲織網

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 새 새끼, 병아리, 애송이, 닭
adj. - 닭고기의, 어린애의, 겁 많은
v. intr. - 겁나서 벌벌 떨다, 꽁무니를 빼다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - ひよこ, とり肉, 若い女
adj. - 臆病な

idioms:

• chicken and egg    因果関係のわからない
• chicken feed    家禽の飼料, 小銭
• chicken pox    水痘, 鶏痘
• chicken wire    金網

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) دجاجه (صفه) جبان (فعل) يخاف‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮תרנגולת, פרגית, בשר-עוף, צעיר וחסר-ניסיון‬
adj. - ‮פחדן‬
v. intr. - ‮נסוג ממעשה מתוך חשש‬

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