chocolate

1. Fermented, roasted, shelled, and ground cacao seeds, often combined with a sweetener or flavoring agent.
2. A beverage made by mixing water or milk with chocolate.
3. A small, chocolate-covered candy with a hard or soft center.
4. A grayish to deep reddish brown to deep grayish brown.

1. Made or flavored with chocolate: chocolate pudding.
2. Of a grayish to deep reddish brown to deep grayish brown.

[Spanish, from Nahuatl xocolatl : xococ, bitter + atl, water.]

Background

Chocolate, in all of its varied forms (candy bars, cocoa, cakes, cookies, coating for other candies and fruits) is probably America's favorite confection. With an annual per capita consumption of around 14 pounds (6 kilograms) per person, chocolate is as ubiquitous as a non-essential food can be.

Cocoa trees originated in South America's river valleys, and, by the seventh century A.D., the Mayan Indians had brought them north into Mexico. In addition to the Mayans, many other Central American Indians, including the Aztecs and the Toltecs, seem to have cultivated cocoa trees, and the words "chocolate" and "cocoa" both derive from the Aztec language. When Cortez, Pizarro, and other Spanish explorers arrived in Central America in the fifteenth century, they noted that cocoa beans were used as currency and that the upper class of the native populations drank cacahuatl, a frothy beverage consisting of roasted cocoa beans blended with red pepper, vanilla, and water.

While the Spanish initially found the bitter flavor of unsweetened cacahuatl unpalatable, they gradually introduced modifications that rendered the drink more appealing to the European palate. Grinding sugar, cinnamon, cloves, anise, almonds, hazelnuts, vanilla, orange-flower water, and musk with dried cocoa beans, they heated the mixture to create a paste (as with many popular recipes today, variations were common). They then smoothed this paste on the broad, flat leaves of the plantain tree, let it harden, and removed the resulting slabs of chocolate. To make chocalatl, the direct ancestor of our hot chocolate, they dissolved these tablets in hot water and a thin corn broth. They then stirred the liquid until it frothed, perhaps to distribute the fats from the chocolate paste evenly (cocoa beans comprise more than fifty percent cocoa butter by weight). By the mid-seventeenth century, an English missionary reported that only members of Mexico's lower classes still drank cacahuatl in its original form.

When missionaries and explorers returned to Spain with the drink, they encountered resistance from the powerful Catholic Church, which argued that the beverage, contaminated by its heathen origins, was bound to corrupt Christians who drank it. But the praise of returning conquistadors—Cortez himself designated chocalatl as "the divine drink that builds up resistance and fights fatigue"—overshadowed the church's dour prophecies, and hot chocolate became an immediate success in Spain. Near the end of the sixteenth century, the country built the first chocolate factories, in which cocoa beans were ground into a paste that could later be mixed with water. Within seventy years the drink was prized throughout Europe, its spread furthered by a radical drop in the price of sugar between 1640 and 1680 (the increased availability of the sweetener enhanced the popularity of coffee as well).

Chocolate consumption soon extended to England, where the drink was served in "chocolate houses," upscale versions of the coffee houses that had sprung up in London during the 1600s. In the mid-seventeenth century, milk chocolate was invented by an Englishman, Sir Hans Sloane, who had lived on the island of Jamaica for many years, observing the Jamaicans' extensive use of chocolate. A naturalist and personal physician to Queen Anne, Sloane had previously considered the cocoa bean's high fat content a problem, but, after observing how young Jamaicans seemed to thrive on both cocoa products and milk, he began to advocate dissolving chocolate tablets in milk rather than water.

The first Europeans to drink chocolate, the Spaniards were also the first to consume it in solid form. Although several naturalists and physicians who had traveled extensively in the Americas had noted that some Indians ate solid chocolate lozenges, many Europeans believed that consuming chocolate in this form would create internal obstructions. As this conviction gradually diminished, cook-books began to include recipes for chocolate candy. However, a typical eighteenth-century hard chocolate differed substantially from modern chocolate confections. Back then, chocolate candy consisted solely of chocolate paste and sugar held together with plant gums. In addition to being unappealing on its own, the coarse, crumbly texture of this product reduced its ability to hold sugar. Primitive hard chocolate, not surprisingly, was nowhere near as popular as today's improved varieties.

These textural problems were solved in 1828, when a Dutch chocolate maker named Conrad van Houten invented a screw press that could be used to squeeze most of the butter out of cocoa beans. Van Houten's press contributed to the refinement of chocolate by permitting the separation of cocoa beans into cocoa powder and cocoa butter. Dissolved in hot liquid, the powder created a beverage far more palatable than previous chocolate drinks, which were much like blocks of unsweetened baker's chocolate melted in fluid. Blended with regular ground cocoa beans, the cocoa butter made chocolate paste smoother and easier to blend with sugar. Less than twenty years later, an English company introduced the first commercially prepared hard chocolate. In 1876 a Swiss candy maker named Daniel Peter further refined chocolate production, using the dried milk recently invented by the Nestle company to make solid milk chocolate. In 1913 Jules Sechaud, a countryman of Peter's, developed a technique for making chocolate shells filled with other confections. Well before the first World War, chocolate had become one of the most popular confections, though it was still quite expensive.

Hershey Foods, one of a number of American chocolate-making companies founded during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, made chocolate more affordable and available. Today the most famous—although not the largest—chocolate producer in the United States, the company was founded by Milton Hershey, who invested the fortune he'd amassed making caramels in a Pennsylvania chocolate factory. Hershey had first become fascinated by chocolate at the 1893 Chicago World's Columbian Exposition, where one of leading attractions was a 2,200-pound (998.8 kilograms), ten-foot (3.05 meters) tall chocolate statue of Germania, the symbol of the Stollwerck chocolate company in Germany (Germania was housed in a 38-foot [11.58 meters] Renaissance temple, also constructed entirely of chocolate). When he turned to chocolate making, Hershey decided to use the same fresh milk that had made his caramels so flavorful. He also dedicated himself to utilizing mass production techniques that would enable him to sell large quantities of chocolate, individually wrapped and affordably priced. For decades after Hershey began manufacturing them in 1904, Hershey bars cost only a nickel.

Another company, M&M/Mars, has branched out to produce dozens of non-chocolate products, thus making the company four times as large as Hershey Foods, despite the fact that the latter firm remains synonymous with chocolate in the eyes of many American consumers. Yet since its founding in 1922, M&M/Mars has produced many of the country's most enduringly popular chocolate confections. M&M/Mars' success began with the Milky Way bar, which was cheaper to produce than pure chocolate because its malt flavor derived from nougat, a mixture of egg whites and corn syrup. The Snickers and Three Musketeers bars, both of which also featured cost-cutting nougat centers, soon followed, and during the 1930s soldiers fighting in the Spanish Civil War suggested the M&M. To prevent the chocolate candy they carried in their pockets from melting, these soldiers had protected it with a sugary coating that the Mars company adapted to create its most popular product.

Raw Materials

Although other ingredients are added, most notably sugar or other sweeteners, flavoring agents, and sometimes potassium carbonate (the agent used to make so-called dutch cocoa), cocoa beans are the primary component of chocolate.

Cocoa trees are evergreens that do best within 20 degrees of the equator, at altitudes of between 100 (30.48 centimeters) and 1,000 (304.8 centimeters) feet above sea level. Native to South and Central America, the trees are currently grown on commercial plantations in such places as Malaysia, Brazil, Ecuador, and West Africa. West Africa currently produces nearly three quarters of the world's 75,000 ton annual cocoa bean crop, while Brazil is the largest producer in the Western Hemisphere.

Because they are relatively delicate, the trees can be harmed by full sun, fungi, and insect pests. To minimize such damage, they are usually planted with other trees such as rubber or banana. The other crops afford protection from the sun and provide plantation owners with an alternative income if the cocoa trees fail.

The pods, the fruit of the cocoa tree, are 6-10 inches (15.24-25.4 centimeters) long and 3-4 inches (7.62-10.16 centimeters) in diameter. Most trees bear only about 30 to 40 pods, each of which contains between 20 and 40 inch-long (2.54 centimeters) beans in a gummy liquid. The pods ripen in three to four months, and, because of the even climate in which the trees grow, they ripen continually throughout the year. However, the greatest number of pods are harvested between May and December.

Of the 30 to 40 pods on a typical cacao tree, no more than half will be mature at any given time. Only the mature fruits can be harvested, as only they will produce top quality ingredients. After being cut from the trees with machetes or knives mounted on poles (the trees are too delicate to be climbed), mature pods are opened on the plantation with a large knife or machete. The beans inside are then manually removed.

Still entwined with pulp from the pods, the seeds are piled on the ground, where they are allowed to heat beneath the sun for several days (some plantations also dry the beans mechanically, if necessary). Enzymes from the pulp combine with wild, airborne yeasts to cause a small amount of fermentation that will make the final product even more appetizing. During the fermenting process, the beans reach a temperature of about 125 degrees Fahrenheit (51 degrees Celsius). This kills the embryos, preventing the beans from sprouting while in transit; it also stimulates decomposition of the beans' cell walls. Once the beans have sufficiently fermented, they will be stripped of the remaining pulp and dried. Next, they are graded and bagged in sacks weighing from 130 to 200 pounds (59.02-90.8 kilograms). They will then be stored until they are inspected, after which they will be shipped to an auction to be sold to chocolate makers.

The Manufacturing
Process

Roasting, hulling, and crushing the beans

• Once a company has received a shipment of cocoa beans at its processing plant, the beans are roasted, first on screens and then in revolving cylinders through which heated air is blown. Over a period of 30 minutes to 2 hours, the moisture in the beans is reduced from about seven percent to about one percent. The roasting process triggers a browning reaction, in which more than 300 different chemicals present in the cocoa beans interact. The beans now begin to develop the rich flavor we associate with chocolate.
• Roasting also causes the shells to open and break away from the nibs (the meat of the bean). This separation process can be completed by blowing air across the beans as they go through a giant winnowing machine called a cracker and fanner, which loosens the hulls from the beans without crushing them. The hulls, now separated from the nibs, are usually sold as either mulch or fertilizer. They are also sometimes used as a commercial boiler fuel.
• Next, the roasted nibs undergo broyage, a process of crushing that takes place in a grinder made of revolving granite blocks. The design of the grinder may vary, but most resemble old-fashioned flour mills. The final product of this grinding process, made up of small particles of the nib suspended in oil, is a thick syrup known as chocolate liquor.
• The next step is refining, during which the liquor is further ground between sets of revolving metal drums. Each successive rolling is faster than the preceding one because the liquor is becoming smoother and flows easier. The ultimate goal is to reduce the size of the particles in the liquor to about .001 inch (.00254 centimeters).

Making cocoa powder

• If the chocolate being produced is to be cocoa powder, from which hot chocolate and baking mixes are made, the chocolate liquor may be dutched, a process so-named because it was invented by the Dutch chocolate maker Conrad van Houten. In the dutching process, the liquor is treated with an alkaline solution, usually potassium carbonate, that raises its pH from 5.5 to 7 or 8. This increase darkens the color of the cocoa, renders its flavor more mild, and reduces the tendency of the nib particles to form clumps in the liquor. The powder that eventually ensues is called dutch cocoa.
• The next step in making cocoa powder is defatting the chocolate liquor, or removing large amounts of butter from it. This is done by further compressing the liquor between rollers, until about half of the fat from its cocoa beans has been released. The resulting solid material, commonly called press cake, is then broken, chopped, or crushed before being sifted to produce cocoa powder. When additives such as sugar or other sweeteners have been blended, this cocoa powder becomes a modern version of chocalatl.

Making chocolate candy

• If the chocolate being produced is to become candy, the press cake is remixed with some of the removed cocoa butter. The restored cocoa butter is necessary for texture and consistency, and different types of chocolate require different amounts of cocoa butter.
• The mixture now undergoes a process known as conching, in which it is continuously turned and ground in a huge open vat. The process's name derives from older vats, which resembled large conch shells. The conching process can last from between three hours to three days (more time is not necessarily better, however). This is the most important step in making chocolate. The speed and temperature of the mixing are critical in determining the quality of the final product.
• Another crucial aspect of conching is the time and rate at which other ingredients are added. The ingredients added during conching determine what type of chocolate is produced: sweet chocolate consists of chocolate liquor, cocoa butter, sugar, and vanilla; milk chocolate contains sweet chocolate with powdered whole milk or whole liquid milk.
• At the end of the conching process, the chocolate is poured into molds, cooled, cut, and wrapped.

Quality Control

Proportions of ingredients and even some aspects of processing are carefully guarded secrets, although certain guidelines were set by the 1944 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Law, as well as more recent laws and regulations. For example, milk chocolate must contain a minimum of 12 percent milk solids and 10 percent chocolate liquor. Sweet chocolate, which contains no milk solids, must contain at least fifteen percent chocolate liquor. The major companies, however, have a reputation for enforcing strict quality and cleanliness standards. Milton Hershey zealously insisted upon fresh ingredients, and the Mars company boasts that its factory floors harbor fewer bacteria than the average kitchen sink. Moreover, slight imperfections are often enough to prompt the rejection of entire batches of candy.

The Future

Although concerns about the high fat and caloric content of chocolate have reduced per capita consumption in the United States from over twenty pounds (9.08 kilograms) per year to around fourteen (6.36 kilograms), chocolate remains the most popular type of confection. In addition, several psychiatrists have recently speculated that, because the substance contains phenylethylamine, a natural stimulant, depressed people may resort to chocolate binges in an unknowing attempt to raise their spirits and adjust their body chemistry. Others have speculated that the substance exerts an amorous effect. Despite reduced levels of consumption and regardless of whether or not one endorses the various theories about its effects, chocolate seems guaranteed to remain what it has been throughout the twentieth century: a perennial American favorite.

Where To Learn More

Books

Chocolate Manufacturers' Association of the U.S.A. The Story of Chocolate.

Hirsch, Sylvia Balser and Morton Gill Clark. A Salute to Chocolate. Hawthorn Books, 1968.

O'Neill, Catherine. Let's Visit a Chocolate Factory. Troll Associates, 1988.

Periodicals

Cavendish, Richard. "The Sweet Smell of Success," History Today. July, 1990, pp. 2-3.

"From Xocoatl to Chocolate Bars," Consumer Reports. November, 1986, pp. 696-701.

Galvin, Ruth Mehrtens. "Sybaritic to Some, Sinful to Others, but How Sweet it Is!" Smithsonian. February, 1986, pp. 54-64.

Marshall, Lydia and Ethel Weinberg. "A Fine Romance," Cosmopolitan. February, 1989, pp. 52-4.

[Article by: Lawrence H. Berlow]

Made from cocoa nibs (husked, fermented, and roasted cocoa beans) by refining and the addition of sugar, cocoa butter, flavouring, lecithin, and, for milk chocolate, milk solids. It may also contain vegetable oils other than cocoa butter. Originally from Central America, xocoatl is a cold drink made from cocoa flavoured with honey, spices and vanilla; according to Aztec mythology the god of air, Quetzalcoatl, came to earth and taught human beings to cultivate various crops, including cacao. First use of cocoa as a food rather than a beverage was developed by the Dutch cocoa merchant Conrad van Houten in 1815; first milk chocolate for eating invented in 1875, by adding sweetened condensed milk.

A 100-g portion of milk chocolate is a rich source of copper; a good source of calcium; a source of protein, vitamin B₂, iron, and selenium; contains 30 g of fat, of which 60% is saturated and 30% mono-unsaturated; supplies 540 kcal (2270 kJ). A 100-g portion of plain chocolate is a rich source of copper; a source of protein and iron; fat and energy as for milk chocolate.

The word "chocolate" comes from the Aztec xocolatl, meaning "bitter water." Indeed, the unsweetened drink the Aztecs made of pounded cocoa beans and spices was probably extremely bitter. Bitterness notwithstanding, the Aztec king Montezuma so believed that chocolate was an aphrodisiac that he purportedly drank 50 golden goblets of it each day. Chocolate comes from the tropical cocoa bean, Theobroma ("food of the gods") cacao. After the beans are removed from their pods they're fermented, dried, roasted and cracked, separating the nibs (which contain an average of 54 percent cocoa butter) from the shells. The nibs are ground to extract some of the cocoa butter (a natural vegetable fat), leaving a thick, dark brown paste called chocolate liquor. Next, the chocolate liquor receives an initial refining. If additional cocoa butter is extracted from the chocolate liquor, the solid result is ground to produce unsweetened cocoa powder. If other ingredients are added (such as milk powder, sugar, etc.), the chocolate is refined again. The final step for most chocolate is conching, a process by which huge machines with rotating blades slowly blend the heated chocolate liquor, ridding it of residual moisture and volatile acids. The conching continues for 12 to 72 hours (depending on the type and quality of chocolate) while small amounts of cocoa butter and sometimes lecithin are added to give chocolate its voluptuously smooth texture. Unadulterated chocolate is marketed as unsweetened chocolate, also called baking or bitter chocolate. U.S. Standards require that unsweetened chocolate contain between 50 and 58 percent cocoa butter. The addition of sugar, lecithin and vanilla (or vanillin) creates, depending on the amount of sugar added, bittersweet, semisweet or sweet chocolate. Bittersweet chocolate must contain at least 35 percent chocolate liquor; semisweet and sweet can contain from 15 to 35 percent. Adding dry milk to sweetened chocolate creates milk chocolate, which must contain at least 12 percent milk solids and 10 percent chocolate liquor. Though bittersweet, semisweet and sweet chocolate may often be used interchangeably in some recipes with little textural change, milk chocolate-because of the milk protein-cannot. Liquid chocolate, developed especially for baking, is found on the supermarket shelf alongside other chocolates. It's unsweetened, comes in individual 1-ounce packages, and is convenient because it requires no melting. However, because it's made with vegetable oil rather than cocoa butter, it doesn't deliver either the same texture or flavor as regular unsweetened chocolate. Couverture is a term describing professional-quality coating chocolate that is extremely glossy. It usually contains a minimum of 32 percent cocoa butter, which enables it to form a much thinner shell than ordinary confectionery coating. Couverture is usually only found in specialty candy-making shops. White chocolate is not true chocolate because it contains no chocolate liquor and, likewise, very little chocolate flavor. Instead, it's usually a mixture of sugar, cocoa butter, milk solids, lecithin and vanilla. Read the label: if cocoa butter isn't mentioned, the product is confectionery (or summer) coating, not white chocolate. Beware of products labeled artificial chocolate or chocolate- flavored. They are, just as the label states, not the real thing and both flavor and texture confirm that fact. Chocolate comes in many forms, from 1-ounce squares to 1⁄2-inch chunks to chips ranging in size from 1⁄2 to 1⁄8 inch in diameter. Many chocolate chunks and chips come in flavors including milk, semisweet, mint-flavored and white chocolate. Chocolate should be stored, tightly wrapped, in a cool (60° to 70°F), dry place. If stored at warm temperatures, chocolate will develop a pale gray "bloom" (surface streaks and blotches), caused when the cocoa butter rises to the surface. In damp conditions, chocolate can form tiny gray sugar crystals on the surface. In either case, the chocolate can still be used, with flavor and texture affected only slightly. Under ideal conditions, dark chocolate can be stored 10 years. However, because of the milk solids in both milk chocolate and white chocolate, they shouldn't be stored for longer than 9 months. Because all chocolate scorches easily-which completely ruins the flavor-it should be melted slowly over low heat. One method is to place the chocolate in the top of a double boiler over simmering water. Remove the top of the pan from the heat when the chocolate is a little more than halfway melted and stir until completely smooth. Another method is to place the chocolate in a microwave-safe bowl and, in a 650- to 700-watt microwave oven, heat at 50 percent power. Four ounces of chocolate will take about 3 minutes, but the timing will vary depending on the oven and the type and amount of chocolate. Though chocolate can be melted with liquid (at least 1⁄4 cup liquid per 6 ounces chocolate), a single drop of moisture in melted chocolate will cause it to seize (clump and harden). This problem can sometimes be corrected if vegetable oil is immediately stirred into the chocolate at a ratio of about 1 tablespoon oil to 6 ounces chocolate. Slowly remelt the mixture and stir until once again smooth. See also chocolate syrup; gianduja chocolate; mexican chocolate; tempering.

English has had an appetite for Nahuatl words ever since 1604, when our language first tasted chocolate. In an English translation of a Spanish History of the Indies published that year is an account of chocolate, a drink made by the Aztecs of Mexico from the cacao bean. Both words are from the Nahuatl language spoken by the Aztecs, who considered chocolate divine, literally as well as figuratively. Cacao was a gift from the gods; the tree on which the beans grow served as a bridge between earth and heaven. Chocolate was an everyday drink, but the Aztecs also solemnized everything from marriages to human sacrifices by having the participants drink it.

From the Aztecs the Spanish learned the art of transforming cacao beans into the chief ingredient of hot chocolate by fermenting, drying, and roasting. In 1604 the people of England could only read about chocolate; to taste it they would have to travel to Spain, if not Mexico. But in 1657 a chocolate shop opened in London, and by the end of the century chocolate houses were fashionable meeting places in town. Succeeding centuries found that chocolate was very good as a candy too, and thanks to pioneers like Milton S. Hershey, who developed the process for mass-producing the chocolate bar (not to mention Kisses), we now can indulge our chocaholic passions freely.

Even though the Aztecs were conquered by Spanish speakers nearly 500 years ago, the Nahuatl language is still spoken by nearly a million of the hundred million inhabitants of Mexico. It belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family, which also includes Hopi, Paiute, and Shoshone. We can thank Nahuatl for about forty delicious English words, including tomato, also introduced to English in the 1604 translation, chili (1662), and tamale (1854), as well as avocado (1697) and its derivative guacamole (1920); the animals coyote (1759) and ocelot (1774); and the religious psychedelic drug peyote (1849).

(click to enlarge)
Brazilian cocoa pods (credit: Carl Frank/Photo Researchers)

Food prepared from ground roasted cacao beans. It is consumed as candy, used to make beverages, and added as a flavouring or coating for confections and baked products. It was introduced to Europe by Hernán Cortés following his visit in 1519 to the court of Montezuma II, who served the conquistador a bitter cacao-bean drink, xocoatl. In making chocolate, the kernels of fermented and roasted cacao beans are ground into a paste called chocolate liquor, which may be hardened in molds to form baking (bitter) chocolate, pressed to reduce the cocoa butter (vegetable fat) content and then pulverized to make cocoa powder, or mixed with sugar and additional cocoa butter to make sweet (eating) chocolate. The addition of concentrated milk to sweet chocolate produces milk chocolate. White chocolate, made from cocoa butter, sugar, milk, and vanilla, contains no cocoa solids. Rich in carbohydrates and fat and containing small amounts of caffeine, chocolate is an excellent source of quick energy.

For more information on chocolate, visit Britannica.com.

Chocolate is the name applied to the variety of products manufactured from the seeds of the tropical tree Theobroma cacao L. The Swedish naturalist Carl Von Linné (1707–1778), known as Linnaeus, gave the tree the attribution theobroma or "food of the gods," taken from the Greek. When adjoined to cacao, the indigenous Mixe-Zoquean term for the plant, the name is symbolic of the social, religious, and economic importance of chocolate in both New and Old World cultures. Yet while it was revered, it was also reviled, an ambivalence that attends chocolate even in the twenty-first century. Among all the fruits of tropical and subtropical America, why would this one elicit so much passion?

The Plant and Its History

The geographic origin of T. cacao is obscure. While most texts place its origin in either the Amazon or Orinoco River basins of northern South America, it is equally likely that a separate variety originated in Mesoamerica, perhaps in the Lacandón rainforest of the Mexican state of Chiapas. It has been hypothesized that wild T. cacao was broadly distributed in Central and South America and that at some time trees in the isthmus died out, leaving a northern variety and a southern variety to develop independently. The fruit of criollo, the northern variety, is characterized by elongated, deeply ridged yellow to red pods containing ivory or pale purple seeds, while forastero, the southern variety, is characterized by more ovoid, smooth, melon-like green or yellow pods with pale to deep purple seeds. The pigmented substances and related compounds in the cacao seeds impart bitter and astringent qualities to the chocolate. Hence the forastero variety has a robust flavor, while the delicate, "fine" flavor of the criollo is generally considered of superior quality. In the early twenty-first century, greater than 80 percent of commercial cacao was forastero, since this variety is hardier and more productive.

The word "cacao" seems to have come to the Maya from the Olmec, who inhabited the lowlands of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico between about 1500 and 400 B.C.E. and who probably first domesticated the tree. The Izapan culture that bridged the Olmec and the Classic Maya (250–900 C.E.) likely planted the criollo plantations of Xoconochco (Soconusco) on the Pacific coastal plains of Chiapas, later a prize possession of the Aztec (Mexica) Empire. While this suggests that cacao was an important crop to the Olmec and the Izapan, it is not known to what extent chocolate was an icon food. The pre-Classic Quiché Maya of the Guatemala highlands apparently did not hold it in exceeding high regard for it is mentioned only in passing in the sacred Popol Vuh or "Book of Counsel." But sometime before 250 C.E. this changed. Chocolate appears in Classic Maya iconography, where the glyph symbolizing cacao adorns ritual burial vases. Classic Maya, particularly the wealthy, imbibed cacao in betrothal and marriage ceremonies, reminiscent of the modern use of expensive French champagne. However, the ritual use of cacao reached its height during the time of the Aztec (Mexica) Empire between 1300 and 1521 C.E.

Cacao was both an elite drink and coinage among the post-Classic Maya and the Aztecs. Chocolate was considered a drink for warriors and nobles and had ritual significance as a symbol of human blood. Since cacao could not be grown in the Valley of Mexico, the site of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán, it had to be imported from either the conquered lands in Xoconochco or obtained by trade from the Maya of the Yucatán, which gave chocolate an exotic quality. It has been oft repeated that Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (the familiar "Montezuma") drank fifty flagons of chocolate a day, most especially before entering his harem, but the account of the conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo says of those fifty large mugs, "he would drink a little" (Dillinger et al., 2000, p. 2058S). While cacao was an integral part of the beliefs and practices of the ruling Aztec elite, the image they held of it was not wholly positive. This warning is part of one Aztec tale: "You have become old, you have become tired because of the chocolate you drink and because of the foods you eat" (Coe and Coe, 1996, p. 80). The exuberance of the puritanical Aztecs for chocolate may have been tempered by its association with the luxury-loving Maya of the warm lands to the south. This north-south conflict was repeated in Europe.

In American English usage, "cacao" refers to the tree and its dried seeds prior to further processing; "cocoa" refers to the partially defatted, roasted, and ground cacao seeds; and "chocolate" refers to a food prepared from roasted cacao seeds. Although not leguminous, the cacao seeds are often referred to as "beans." The composition of the edible cotyledon or "nib" is by weight approximately 55 percent fat; 30 percent carbohydrates, half of which is dietary fiber; 10 percent protein; and a host of minor nutrients. This breakdown provides a key to the basis for chocolate's status as a luxury food.

Cacao seeds, numbering twenty to forty, develop within a thick-hulled pod surrounded by a white, sweet, mucilaginous pulp that, with the potential to be fermented into ethanol, could have been what first attracted Homo sapiens. Wild cacao is dispersed by primates, who consume the sweet pulp and discard the bitter seed. Cupuaçu, a product made from the pulp of the fruit of Theobroma grandiflorum, a relative of T. cacao, is consumed by peoples of the Amazon. The preparation of cacao seeds for chocolate making begins with a fermentation step that at one point generates ethanol, which may explain why chocolate has at times been described as intoxicating. A "wine" produced from the liquid expressed from the cacao pulp is consumed in the Yucatán. It is speculative but possible that consumption of the cacao seeds was an afterthought, as the bitter flavor of the seeds is an acquired taste.

Processing Cacao

Fermentation is required for the characteristic chocolate flavor to develop when the seeds are roasted. The mucilaginous pulp surrounding the seeds is fermented to ethanol, then progressively to acetic and lactic acids, which facilitates its removal. The acid and heat generated during fermentation kill the seed embryo, preventing germination and allowing enzymatic changes that generate flavor precursors and reduce bitterness and astringency. Following fermentation, the seeds are dried, preferably in the sun, to a final moisture content of about 7.5 percent. In this form, the seeds are transported from the country of origin to the major chocolate manufacturing regions.

For the Maya and the modern American alike, the conversion of the fermented and dried cacao to chocolate involves three major operations: roasting, winnowing, and grinding. Just as with meat, roasting cacao generates complex aromas appealing to the human sense of smell. Winnowing is the removal of the inedible shell surrounding the nib. Grinding, which the Maya accomplished by hand using a metate and for which later processors have used a variety of mechanical mills, liberates the cacao fat (cacao "butter") from within the plant cells, extracts the aroma, and permits easy suspension of the cacao in beverages.

The quantity of protein in cacao is significant, and the amino acid composition, while limited in lysine and methionine, can be considered good for a protein of plant origin. However, unlike the leguminous beans that complement maize nutritionally, the digestibility of cocoa proteins is only about 16 to 17 percent. Therefore the proteins of cacao have little practical nutritional value.

The nitrogenous compounds of cacao include both proteins (80 percent) and the methylxanthines theobromine and caffeine, which are present in chocolate liquor (ground cacao nibs) at levels of about 1.22 percent and 0.21 percent respectively. They are both central nervous system stimulants, diuretics, and smooth muscle relaxants, although theobromine tends to be less so than caffeine. It is certainly reasonable to assume that the physiological effects of the plant alkaloids are part of chocolate's appeal. Chocolate introduced Europe to these stimulants, though in a milder form than the coffee and tea that followed. The caffeine-containing kola nut, derived from an African tree of the same order as cacao (Sterculiaceae), became the basis of the American icon food Coca Cola. But it is likely that cacao butter is the soul of chocolate's appeal.

While wild game, including deer, peccaries, monkeys, tapir, birds, reptiles, and smaller mammals, were abundant in the New World, the only domesticated animals routinely used for meat were the dog and the ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata). Muscle foods were not ordinary fare for the indigenous inhabitants of Mesoamerica, and "when the meat-eating Europeans arrived, they described Maya life as perpetual Lent" (Coe, 1994, p. 153). Perhaps just as significant, this lack of large domesticated livestock meant the Maya had no source of butter, lard, or tallow. Fats and oils have been sought for cooking, lighting, and medicine since the earliest times. Hence some of the earliest domesticated plant species in the Old World were the almond (Prunus amygdalus) and the olive (Oleo europea). Perhaps the well-documented Maya distaste for the fat of European animals resulted from Maya familiarity with the preeminent fat, cacao butter.

Nutritional Value

Cacao butter is unique among natural fats. Its constituent fatty acids are principally the medium-chain saturated fatty palmitic acid and stearic acid and the monounsaturated oleic acid, so cacao butter exhibits a remarkable stability against oxidative rancidity. Furthermore, the manner in which these fatty acids are distributed on the major molecule of natural fats, triacylglycerols, makes cacao butter solid at normal ambient temperatures, but it melts quickly just below body temperature. Bishop Diego de Landa reportedly said the Maya "get from cacao a grease which resembles butter, and from this and maize they make another beverage which is very savory and highly thought of" (Coe and Coe, 1996, p. 61). Fernández de Oviedo observed, "Cacao ground, and cooked with a bit of water, makes an excellent fat for cooking" (Coe, 1994, p. 54).

As in other fats, the caloric content of cocoa butter is high. Chocolate liquor contains approximately 520 kilocalories per 100 grams, 460 of which are from fat. The 1878 edition of Encyclopedia Britannica refers to "Cocoa, or more properly Cacao," as "a valuable dietary substance" and points out that, while only infusions are made from coffee and tea, leaving large portions of their total weights unconsumed, the entire substance of the cacao seed is utilized. Henry Stubbe, in The Indian Nectar, or, a Discourse Concerning Chocolata [sic] (1662), reported that both English soldiers and Indian women in Jamaica sustained themselves for long periods by eating only chocolate yet did not exhibit a decline in strength. The nutritional qualities of chocolate have been praised by numerous authors since the sixteenth century, and some people have called it a complete food, like bread or milk, containing as much nourishment as a pound of beef. While this helped the Hershey Chocolate Company earn the Army-Navy E award for the Ration D, it caused much consternation within the Catholic Church. Twice the residents of Chiapas consulted Pope Gregory XIII on the question of whether or not drinking chocolate broke the ecclesiastical fast, and both times he responded that it did not because it was a drink. So while coffee and tea can only be regarded as stimulant in effect, a cup of cacao is nutritive in value.

In preconquest Mesoamerica, cacao was an ingredient of a wide variety of drinks, gruels, and porridges, to which were added a great diversity of other flavorings, notably vanilla (Vanilla planifolia), chilli pepper (Capsicum annum), and "ear flower" (Cymbopetalum penduliflorum). It is likely that some of these concoctions were served hot and others cold. The simplest chocolate drink consisted of adding ground cacao and flavorings to water and agitating the mixture by beating or by pouring the liquid from one vessel to another to raise a foam, which was considered the best part of the drink and a sign of quality. During preparation the foam was reserved, then it was added back before serving. While the Maya added indigenous plants to augment the foam, modern consumers have replaced it altogether with whipped cream or marshmallow. The ground cacao was often ameliorated with ground maize or ceiba seed (Ceiba pentandra), though not in the most elite drinks. The bitter taste of most chocolate drinks was not immediately appealing to the European palate. Notable among the ingredients Europeans added to their chocolate are sugar and milk.

From at least the time of the Aztecs, people have been ambivalent about chocolate. Wolfgang Schivelbusch portrayed this ambivalence as a contest between diametrically opposed cultures: capitalist, middle-class, Protestant northern Europe versus aristocratic, Catholic southern Europe. Chocolate was a status symbol of the ancien régime, while coffee appealed to the bourgeois intellect. That chocolate became a status symbol in Europe had much to do with its richness, rarity, and exotic origins. As a status symbol, drinking chocolate vanished with the ancien régime. Cocoa became a breakfast drink for women and children; what formerly symbolized power and glory was now in the hands of the disenfranchised in middle-class society. However, at the same time, solid eating chocolate gained new significance as a luxury in its own right. Once again prestige followed the fat.

While the calories provided by chocolate may have been advantageous to a solider on the march, the idle European nobility found it exceedingly fattening and disagreeable at times to the stomach. In search of a better beverage, Coenraad Van Houten in 1828 developed a means of partially defatting cacao using a mechanical press, an invention that had unanticipated consequences.

The development of solid eating chocolate was evolutionary. Chocolate liquor is solid below 85°F (30°C); formed into small pellets or wafers, it was issued to Aztec warriors on campaign. It was an obvious step to add spices and maize to the cacao during grinding and then form the mixture into cakes. These tablets could later be dispersed into water to prepare a beverage. Seventeenth-century texts mention "eating" as well as drinking chocolate, and recipes for solid confections containing cacao appeared in the eighteenth century. In the 1820s, Goethe wrote of chocolate, "Enjoy this whenever it suits your mood, Not as a drink, but a much loved food" (Morton and Morton, 1986, p. 67). But it was the surplus cacao butter resulting from Van Houten's invention that accelerated the trend toward solid chocolate confections.

The addition of cacao butter to chocolate liquor made it possible to add more sugar to balance the bitterness of the cacao while still producing a thin paste that could be cast into a mold or used as a coating. Solid eating chocolate became an object of trade in the mid-1800s. However, these early products were coarse and gritty. Rudolph Lindt is credited with the 1879 invention of the conch that by grinding the sugar exceedingly fine and homogenizing the mixture creates a smooth and creamy textured chocolate with enhanced flavor and aroma. This "fondant" chocolate became a world standard.

Chocolate has been lauded for its purported medicinal value. Greater than one hundred medicinal uses for chocolate have been reported, and the majority fall into three main categories: 1) to aid emaciated patients in gaining weight; 2) to stimulate the nervous systems of apathetic, exhausted, or feeble individuals; and 3) to improve digestion, stimulate the kidneys (diuretic), and improve bowel function (Dillinger et al., 2000, p. 2057S). These uses can be explained either by cacao's caloric content or by the presence of methylxanthines. In the late twentieth century, attention focused on a class of compounds, phytonutrients, that tend to have antioxidant properties and are said to lower the risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Among these phytonutrients are the polyphenols, in particular the catechins, which have demonstrated physiological antioxident properties. Pigment cells in the cacao seed, especially in the forastero variety, are rich in these compounds, which may mean redemption for the lowly cousin of the criollo.

Chocolate has long been called an aphrodisiac, a quality that entered into the debate over whether or not it could be consumed by Catholics during Lent, and references to its stimulation of the sexual appetite are numerous. Like other luxury items, chocolate is a symbol of excess wealth, but the association of chocolate and eroticism may not be entirely iconographic in nature. While no specific chemical compounds have yet been identified that could account for either chocolate's supposed addictive or aphrodisiac properties, debate continues on its physiological and psychological effects. Chocolate has become an essential ingredient in the act of seduction. It could be that the melting of the cacao butter in chocolate is symbolic of the melting of the heart and the breakdown of sexual resistance.

Bibliography

Bailleux, Nathalie, et al. The Book of Chocolate. Paris: Flammarion, 1995.

Beckett, S. T., ed. Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use. 3rd edition. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 1999.

Coe, Sophie D. America's First Cuisines. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.

Coe, Sophie D., and Michael D. Coe. The True History of Chocolate. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996.

Dand, Robin. The International Cocoa Trade. 2nd edition. Cambridge, U.K.: Woodhead Publishing, 1999.

Dillinger, Teresa L., Patricia Barriga, Sylvia Escárcega, Martha Jimenez, Diana Salazar Lowe, and Louis E. Grivetti. "Food of the Gods: Cure for Humanity? A Cultural History of the Medicinal and Ritual Use of Chocolate." Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 2057S–2072S.

Drewnowski, Adam, and Carmen Gomez-Carneros. "Bitter Taste, Phytonutrients, and the Consumer: A Review." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72 (2000): 1424–1435.

Girard, Sylvie. "Les vertus aphrodisiaques du chocolat [The aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate]." Cahiers Sexol. Clin. 11 (1985): 60–62.

Knight, Ian, ed. Chocolate and Cocoa, Health and Nutrition. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 1999.

Morton, Marcia, and Frederic Morton. Chocolate: An Illustrated History. New York: Crown Publishers, 1986.

Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. Tastes of Paradise: A Social History of Spices, Stimulants, and Intoxicants. Translated from the German by David Jacobson. New York: Pantheon Books, 1992.

—Gregory R. Ziegler

A medium-brown (milk chocolate) coat color of cats seen on the extremities of chocolate-pointed Siamese and Colorpoints and, uncommonly, as a variety of Burmese.

For most people chocolate is considered an indulgence. Chocolate in a dream may therefore symbolize that the dreamer feels the need to be rewarded and deserves special treatment. Alternatively, perhaps the dreamer has been indulging in too many excesses and needs to practice some restraint.

"Chocolates" redirects here. For other uses, see Chocolate (disambiguation).

Chocolate most commonly comes in dark, milk, and white varieties, with cocoa solids contributing to the brown coloration.

Chocolate (pronounced /ˈtʃɒklət/ (help·info) or /-ˈələt/) comprises a number of raw and processed foods that are produced from the seed of the tropical cacao tree. Native to lowland, tropical South America, cacao has been cultivated for at least three millennia in Central America and Mexico, with its earliest documented use around 1100 BC. The majority of the Mesoamerican peoples made chocolate beverages, including the Maya and Aztecs, who made it into a beverage known as xocolātl, a Nahuatl word meaning "bitter water". The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste, and must be fermented to develop the flavor.

After fermentation, the beans are dried, cleaned, and roasted, and the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs. The nibs are then ground and liquified, resulting in pure chocolate in fluid form: chocolate liquor. The liquor can be further processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. "White chocolate" contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids (and thus does not qualify to be considered true chocolate).

Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have physiological effects on the body. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain. Scientists claim that chocolate, eaten in moderation, can lower blood pressure.^[1] Dark chocolate has recently been promoted for its health benefits, including a substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals, though the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals,^[2] such as dogs and cats.

Chocolate has become one of the most popular flavors in the world. Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes have become traditional on certain holidays: chocolate bunnies and eggs are popular on Easter, chocolate coins on Hanukkah, Santa Claus and other holiday symbols on Christmas, and hearts on Valentine's Day. Chocolate is also used in cold and hot beverages, to produce chocolate milk and hot chocolate.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Types 4 Production 4.1 Cacao varieties 4.2 Processing 4.3 Blending 4.4 Conching 4.5 Tempering 4.6 Storage 5 Health 5.1 Circulatory benefits 5.2 Aphrodisiac 5.3 Other benefits 5.4 Obesity risk 5.5 Acne 5.6 Lead 5.7 Toxicity in animals 5.8 As a stimulant 6 Labelling 7 Manufacturers 8 In popular culture 8.1 Holidays 8.2 Books and film 9 Notes 10 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 See also 13 External links

Etymology

The word "chocolate" entered the English language from Spanish.^[3] How the word came into Spanish is less certain, and there are multiple competing explanations. Perhaps the most cited explanation is that "chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, from the word "chocolatl", which many sources derived from the Nahuatl word "xocolatl" made up from the words "xococ" meaning sour or bitter, and "atl" meaning water or drink.^[3] However, as William Bright noted^[4] the word "chocolatl" doesn't occur in central Mexican colonial sources making this an unlikely derivation. Santamaria^[5] gives a derivation from the Yucatec Maya word "chokol" meaning hot, and the Nahuatl "atl" meaning water. More recently Dakin and Wichmann derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl" from Eastern Nahuatl meaning "beaten drink".^[6] They derive this term from the word for the frothing stick, "chicoli".

History

A mug of hot chocolate. Chocolate was first drunk rather than eaten.

See also: History of chocolate

Cacao, native to lowland, tropical South America, has been cultivated for at least three millennia in Mesoamerica and Central America . It was used in Mesoamerica both as a beverage, and as an ingredient in foods.

Chocolate has been used as a drink for nearly all of its history. The earliest record of using chocolate dates back before the Olmec. In November 2007, archaeologists reported finding evidence of the oldest known cultivation and use of cacao at a site in Puerto Escondido, Honduras, dating from about 1100 to 1400 BC.^[7] The residues found and the kind of vessel they were found in indicate that the initial use of cacao was not simply as a beverage, but the white pulp around the cacao beans was likely used as a source of fermentable sugars for an alcoholic drink.^[7] The Maya civilization grew cacao trees in their backyard,^[8] and used the cacao seeds it produced to make a frothy, bitter drink.^[9] Documents in Maya hieroglyphs stated that chocolate was used for ceremonial purposes, in addition to everyday life.^[10] The chocolate residue found in an early ancient Maya pot in Río Azul, Guatemala, suggests that Maya were drinking chocolate around 400 AD. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter, spicy drink called xocoatl, and was often flavored with vanilla, chili pepper, and achiote (known today as annatto).^[11] Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the theobromine content. Chocolate was also an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cacao beans were often used as currency.^[12] For example, the Aztecs used a system in which one turkey cost one hundred cacao beans and one fresh avocado was worth three beans.^[13] South American and European cultures have used cocoa to treat diarrhea for hundreds of years.^[14] All of the areas that were conquered by the Aztecs that grew cacao beans were ordered to pay them as a tax, or as the Aztecs called it, a "tribute".^[15]

Until the 16th century, no European had ever heard of the popular drink from the Central and South American peoples.^[16] It was not until the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs that chocolate could be imported to Europe, where it quickly became a court favorite.^[16] To keep up with the high demand for this new drink, Spanish armies began enslaving Mesoamericans to produce cacao.^[17] Even with cacao harvesting becoming a regular business, only royalty and the well-connected could afford to drink this expensive import.^[18] Before long, the Spanish began growing cacao beans on plantations, and using an African workforce to help manage them.^[19] The situation was different in England. Put simply, anyone with money could buy it.^[20] The first chocolate house opened in London in 1657.^[20] In 1689, noted physician and collector Hans Sloane developed a milk chocolate drink in Jamaica which was initially used by apothecaries, but later sold to the Cadbury brothers.^[21]

For hundreds of years, the chocolate making process remained unchanged. When the people saw the Industrial Revolution arrive, many changes occurred that brought about the food today in its modern form. A Dutch family's (van Houten) inventions made mass production of shiny, tasty chocolate bars and related products possible. In the 1700s, mechanical mills were created that squeezed out cocoa butter, which in turn helped to create hard, durable chocolate.^[22] But, it was not until the arrival of the Industrial Revolution that these mills were put to bigger use. Not long after the revolution cooled down, companies began advertising this new invention to sell many of the chocolate treats we see today.^[23] When new machines were produced, people began experiencing and consuming chocolate worldwide.^[24]

Types

Main article: Types of chocolate

A half beat of milk chocolate with salmiak filling by Fazer

Several types of chocolate can be distinguished. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. "White chocolate" contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have some physiological effects in humans, but the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such as dogs and cats.^[2] It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain. Dark chocolate has been promoted^[who?] for its health benefits, as it seems to possess substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals.

White chocolate is formed from a mixture of sugar, cocoa butter and milk solids. Although its texture is similar to milk and dark chocolate, it does not contain any cocoa solids. Because of this, many countries do not consider white chocolate as chocolate at all.^[25] Although first introduced by Hebert Candies in 1955, Mars, Incorporated was the first to produce white chocolate within the United States. Because it does not contain any cocoa solids, white chocolate does not contain any theobromine, meaning it can be consumed by animals.

Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture. The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.^[26] Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a rich source of the flavonoids epicatechin and gallic acid, which are thought to possess cardioprotective properties. Dark chocolate has also been said to reduce the possibility of a heart attack when consumed regularly in small amounts.^[27] Semisweet chocolate is a dark chocolate with a low sugar content. Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor to which some sugar (typically a third), more cocoa butter, vanilla and sometimes lecithin have been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking.

Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavor.

Production

See also: Children in cocoa production

Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening

Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's cocoa is produced in Western Africa, with 43% sourced from Côte d'Ivoire.^[28] According to the World Cocoa Foundation, some 50 million people around the world depend on cocoa as a source of livelihood.^[1] The industry is dominated by three chocolate makers, Barry Callebaut, Cargill^{[citation needed]} and Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM).^{[citation needed]} In the UK, most chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their own design.^[29] Despite some disagreement in the EU about the definition,^{[clarification needed]} chocolate is any product made primarily of cocoa solids and cocoa fat. The different flavors of chocolate can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans, by adjusting the relative quantities of the cocoa solids and cocoa fat, and by adding non-chocolate ingredients.^{[citations needed]}

Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa solid content or by substituting cocoa butter with a non-cocoa fat. Cocoa growers object to allowing the resulting food to be called "chocolate", due to the risk of lower demand for their crops.^[1]

There are two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy, chocolate makers and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested cacao beans and other ingredients to produce couverture chocolate. Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to make chocolate candies (bars, truffles, etc.).^[30]

Cacao varieties

Chocolate Cream

Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20 degrees of either side of the equator because they need about 2000 millimeters of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21 to 32 degrees Celsius. Cacao trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit).^[31]

The three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolate are criollo, forastero and trinitario.

Representing only five percent of all cocoa beans grown,^[32] criollo is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market and is native to Central America, the Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American states.^[33] There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as Criollo, as most populations have been exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are particularly difficult to grow, as they are vulnerable to a variety of environmental threats and produce low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollo is described as delicate yet complex, low in classic chocolate flavor, but rich in "secondary" notes of long duration.^[34]

The most commonly grown bean is forastero,^[32] a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, most likely native to the Amazon basin. The African cocoa crop is entirely of the Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than Criollo. The source of most chocolate marketed,^[32] forastero cocoas are typically strong in classic "chocolate" flavor, but have a short duration and are unsupported by secondary flavors, producing "quite bland" chocolate.^[32]

Trinitario is a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero. Trinitario originated in Trinidad after an introduction of Forastero to the local Criollo crop. Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties.^[35]

Processing

Cacao pods are harvested by cutting the pods from the tree using a machete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick. The beans with their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and placed in piles or bins to ferment. The fermentation process is what gives the beans their familiar chocolate taste. It is important to harvest the pods when they are fully ripe because if the pod is unripe, the beans will have a low cocoa butter content, or there will be insufficient sugars in the white pulp for fermentation, resulting in a weak flavor. After fermentation, the beans must be quickly dried to prevent mold growth. Climate and weather permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun from 5 to 7 days.^[36]

The dried beans are then transported to a chocolate manufacturing facility. The beans are cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded. Next the shells are removed to extract the nib. Finally, the nibs are ground and liquefied, resulting in pure chocolate in fluid form: chocolate liquor. The liquor can be further processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter.^[37]

Blending

Main article: Types of chocolate

Chocolate made with enough cocoa butter flows gently over a chocolate fountain to serve dessert fondue.

Chocolate Melanger

Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couvertures. The basic blends of ingredients for the various types of chocolate (in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first), are as follows:

• Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla
• Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla
• White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla

Usually, an emulsifying agent such as soy lecithin is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain GMO free, sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. Some manufacturers are now using PGPR, an artificial emulsifier derived from castor oil that allows them to reduce the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining the same mouthfeel.

The texture is also heavily influenced by processing, specifically conching (see below). The more expensive chocolate tends to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and "feel" on the tongue, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added.

Different manufacturers develop their own "signature" blends based on the above formulas, but varying proportions of the different constituents are used.

The finest, plain dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (both solids and butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality white chocolate couvertures contain only about 33% cocoa.

Producers of high quality, small batch chocolate argue that mass production produces bad quality chocolate.^[32] Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other than cocoa butter. Vegetable oils and artificial vanilla flavor are often used in cheaper chocolate to mask poorly fermented and/or roasted beans.^[32]

In 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association in the United States, whose members include Hershey, Nestlé, and Archer Daniels Midland, lobbied the Food and Drug Administration to change the legal definition of chocolate to let them substitute partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for cocoa butter in addition to using artificial sweeteners and milk substitutes.^[38] Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not allow a product to be referred to as "chocolate" if the product contains any of these ingredients.^[39][40]

Conching

Various chocolate-making machinery

Main article: Conching

The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until final processing.^[41]

Tempering

The final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken.^[42] The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.

The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous crystallization).^[42] The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best form is present. The six different crystal forms have different properties.

Crystal	Melting temp.	Notes
I	17 °C (63 °F)	Soft, crumbly, melts too easily.
II	21 °C (70 °F)	Soft, crumbly, melts too easily.
III	26 °C (78 °F)	Firm, poor snap, melts too easily.
IV	28 °C (82 °F)	Firm, good snap, melts too easily.
V	34 °C (94 °F)	Glossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37 °C).
VI	36 °C (97 °F)	Hard, takes weeks to form.

Making chocolate considered "good" is about forming as many type V crystals as possible. This provides the best appearance and texture and creates the most stable crystals so the texture and appearance will not degrade over time. To accomplish this, the temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization.

Generally, the chocolate is first heated to 45 °C (115 °F) to melt all six forms of crystals.^[42] Next, the chocolate is cooled to about 27 °C (80 °F), which will allow crystal types IV and V to form. At this temperature, the chocolate is agitated to create many small crystal "seeds" which will serve as nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate. The chocolate is then heated to about 31 °C (88 °F) to eliminate any type IV crystals, leaving just type V. After this point, any excessive heating of the chocolate will destroy the temper and this process will have to be repeated. However, there are other methods of chocolate tempering used. The most common variant is introducing already tempered, solid "seed" chocolate. The temper of chocolate can be measured with a chocolate temper meter to ensure accuracy and consistency. A sample cup is filled with the chocolate and placed in the unit which then displays or prints the results.

Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are:

• Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal "seeds"; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature.
• Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to "inoculate" the liquid chocolate with crystals (this method uses the already formed crystal of the solid chocolate to "seed" the molten chocolate).

Chocolate tempering machines (or temperers) with computer controls can be used for producing consistently tempered chocolate, particularly for large volume applications.

Storage

Molten chocolate and a piece of a chocolate bar

Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 °C (59 to 63 °F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper storage with the correct humidity and temperature. Additionally chocolate is frequently stored in a dark place or protected from light by wrapping paper. Various types of "blooming" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Moving chocolate from one temperature extreme to another, such as from a refrigerator on a hot day, can result in an oily texture. Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is perfectly safe for consumption.^[43][44][45]

Health

This section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. WikiProject Health and fitness or the Health and fitness Portal may be able to help recruit one. (May 2009)

Overview of the main health effects attributed to chocolate.^[46]

While chocolate is regularly eaten for pleasure, there are potential beneficial health effects of eating chocolate. Cocoa or dark chocolate benefits the circulatory system.^[47] Other beneficial effects suggested include anticancer, brain stimulator, cough preventor and antidiarrhoeal effects.^[48] An aphrodisiac effect is yet unproven.

On the other hand, the unconstrained consumption large quantities of any energy-rich food such as chocolate is thought to increase the risk of obesity without a corresponding increase in activity. Raw chocolate is high in cocoa butter, a fat which is removed during chocolate refining, then added back in in varying proportions during the manufacturing process. Manufacturers may add other fats, sugars, and milk as well, all of which increase the caloric content of chocolate.

There is concern of mild lead poisoning for some types of chocolate. Chocolate is toxic to many animals because of insufficient capacity to metabolize theobromine.^[2]

A study reported by the BBC indicated that melting chocolate in one's mouth produced an increase in brain activity and heart rate that was more intense than that associated with passionate kissing, and also lasted four times as long after the activity had ended.^[49]

Circulatory benefits

Recent studies have suggested that cocoa or dark chocolate may possess certain beneficial effects on human health. This is mainly caused by a particular substance present in cocoa called epicatechin.^[50] Cocoa possesses a significant antioxidant action, protecting against LDL oxidation, perhaps more than other polyphenol antioxidant-rich foods and beverages. Some studies have also observed a modest reduction in blood pressure and flow-mediated dilation after consuming dark chocolate daily.^[51] There has even been a fad diet, named "Chocolate diet", that emphasizes eating chocolate and cocoa powder in capsules^{[citation needed]}. However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking fat-containing milk with dark chocolate, appears largely to negate the health benefit.^[52] Processed cocoa powder (so called Dutch chocolate), processed with alkali greatly reduces the antioxidant capacity as compared to "raw" cocoa powder. Processing cocoa with alkali destroys most of the flavonoids.^[53]

One-third of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms of a saturated fat called stearic acid and a monounsaturated fat called oleic acid. However, unlike other saturated fats, stearic acid does not raise levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream.^[54] Consuming relatively large amounts of dark chocolate and cocoa does not seem to raise serum LDL cholesterol levels; some studies even find that it could lower them.^[55] Indeed, small but regular amounts of dark chocolate lower the possibility of a heart attack,^[27] a result of cholesterol imbalance according to the lipid hypothesis^{[citation needed]}.

Aphrodisiac

Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an aphrodisiac. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. Although there is no proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, a gift of chocolate is a familiar courtship ritual.

Other benefits

Several population studies have observed an increase in the risk of certain cancers among people who frequently consume sweet 'junk' foods such as chocolate^{[citation needed]}. However, very little evidence exists to suggest whether consuming flavonoid-rich dark chocolate may increase or decrease the risk of cancer. Evidence from laboratory studies suggests that cocoa flavonoids may possess anticarcinogenic mechanisms, but more research is needed to prove this idea^{[citation needed]}.

Studies suggest a specially formulated type of cocoa may be nootropic and delay brain function decline as people age.^[56]

Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy company, spends money each year on flavonol research.^[57] The company is talking with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavonol molecules. According to Mars-funded researchers at Harvard, the University of California, and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases.^[58]

Other research indicates that chocolate may be effective at preventing persistent coughing^{[citation needed]}. Theobromine was found to be almost one third more effective than codeine, the leading cough medicine.^[59] The chocolate also appears to soothe and moisten the throat^{[citation needed]}.

Flavonoids can inhibit the development of diarrhea, suggesting antidiarrhoeal effects of cocoa.^[60]

Obesity risk

The major concern that nutritionists have is that even though eating dark chocolate may not affect serum cholesterol, blood pressure or LDL oxidation, it is not known whether it favorably affect certain biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, the amount needed to have this effect would provide a relatively large quantity of calories, which, if unused, would promote weight gain. Obesity is a significant risk factor for many diseases, including cardiovascular disease. As a consequence, consuming large quantities of dark chocolate in an attempt to protect against cardiovascular disease has been described as 'cutting off one's nose to spite one's face'.^[61]

Acne

Chocolate, ranging from dark to light, can be molded and decorated like these chickens with ribbons.

There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate can cause acne. This belief is not supported by scientific studies.^[62][63] Various studies point not to chocolate, but to the high glycemic nature of certain foods, like sugar, corn syrup, and other simple carbohydrates, as a cause of acne.^{[64][65][66][67]} Chocolate itself has a low glycemic index.^[68] Other dietary causes of acne cannot be excluded yet, but more rigorous research is required.^[69]

Lead

Chocolate has one of the higher concentrations of lead among products that constitute a typical Westerner's diet, with a potential to cause mild lead poisoning. Recent studies have shown that although the beans themselves absorb little lead, it tends to bind to cocoa shells and contamination may occur during the manufacturing process. A recent peer-reviewed publication found significant amounts of lead in chocolate.^[70] In a USDA study in 2004, mean lead levels in the samples tested ranged from 0.0010 to 0.0965 µg lead per gram of chocolate, but another study by a Swiss research group in 2002 found that some chocolate contained up to 0.769 µg per gram, close to the international (voluntary) standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is 1 µg of lead per gram.^[71] In 2006, the U.S. FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, but compliance is only voluntary.^[72] While studies show that the lead consumed in chocolate may not all be absorbed by the human body, there is no known threshold for the effects of lead on children's brain function and even small quantities of lead can cause permanent neurodevelopmental deficits including impaired IQ.^[73]

Toxicity in animals

Main article: Theobromine poisoning

In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as horses, dogs, parrots, small rodents, and cats because they are unable to metabolise the chemical effectively.^[2] If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their bloodstream for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment performed by a veterinarian involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion and administration of benzodiazepines or barbiturates for seizures, antiarrhythmics for heart arrhythmias, and fluid diruesis.

A typical 20-kilogram (40-lb) dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams (8.5 oz) of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram (0.88 oz) baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog. Of course, baking chocolate is rarely consumed directly due to its unpleasant taste, but other dark chocolates' canine toxicities may be extrapolated based on this figure. As dogs like the taste of chocolate products as much as humans do, and are capable of finding and eating quantities much larger than typical human servings, they should be kept out of their reach. There are reports that mulch made from cacao bean shells is dangerous to dogs and livestock.^[74][75][76]

As a stimulant

Molten Chocolate

A chocolate sweet.

A model of the Reichstag made of chocolate at a Berlin shop

See also: Chocoholism

Chocolate contains a variety of substances, some of which have an effect on body chemistry. These include:

• Sugar
• Theobromine, the primary alkaloid in cocoa and chocolate^[77] and partly responsible for chocolate's mood-elevating effect
• Tryptophan, an essential amino acid and precursor to serotonin
• Phenethylamine, an endogenous alkaloid sometimes described as a 'love chemical;^[78] it is quickly metabolized by monoamine oxidase-B and does not reach the brain in significant amounts
• Caffeine, present in smaller amounts^[77]

Chocolate is a mild stimulant to humans mainly due to the presence of theobromine.^[79] It is much more potent for horses, and its use in horse racing is prohibited.

Labelling

Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of "cocoa" or "cacao". It should be noted that this refers to the combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar, not just the percentage of cocoa solids.^[80]

Chocolates that are organic^[81] or fair trade certified^[82] carry labels accordingly.

In the United States, some large chocolate manufacturers lobbied the federal government to permit confection containing cheaper hydrogenated vegetable oil in place of cocoa butter to be sold as "chocolate". In June 2007, as a response to consumer concern after the proposed change, the FDA re-iterated that "Cacao fat, as one of the signature characteristics of the product, will remain a principal component of standardized chocolate"^[83]

Manufacturers

Main article: List of chocolate manufacturers

Many chocolate manufacturers have created products from chocolate bars to fudge, hoping to attract more consumers with each creation. Both The Hershey Company and Mars have become the largest manufacturers in the world. Other significant players include Cadbury, Nestlé, Kraft Foods and Lindt.

The Hershey Company, known for their Hershey bar, Hershey's kisses and Reese's Peanut Butter Cups, is the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America.^[84] Mars, Incorporated, one of the largest privately owned U.S. corporations, is a worldwide manufacturer of confectionery and other food products with US$21 billion in annual sales in 2006. Mars is most famous for its eponymous Mars Bar, as well as other confectionery such as Milky Way, M&M's, Twix, Skittles and Snickers.

British-based Cadbury plc is the world's largest confectionery manufacturer.^[85] It is well known for its Dairy Milk range and Creme Egg; Fry's, Trebor Basset, the fair-trade brand Green & Black's also belong to the group.

Food conglomerates Nestlé SA and Kraft Foods both have chocolate brands. Nestlé acquired Rowntree's in 1988 and now market chocolates under their own brand, including Smarties and Kit Kat; Kraft Foods through its 1990 acquisition of Jacobs Suchard, now own Milka and Suchard.

In popular culture

Cadbury Creme Eggs are fondant-filled chocolate eggs.

Holidays

Chocolate is one of the most popular treats given on holidays. On Valentine's Day, a box of chocolate is given, usually with flowers and a greeting card. It is given on other holidays, including Christmas, Thanksgiving, and birthdays, although no special chocolate creation is common on these holidays. On Easter, chocolate eggs are popular gifts. A chocolate egg is a confectionery made primarily of chocolate, and can either be solid, hollow, or filled with cream.

Books and film

Chocolate has been the center of several successful book and film adaptations. In 1964, Roald Dahl published a children's novel titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The novel centers around a poor boy named Charlie Bucket who takes a tour through the greatest chocolate factory in the world, owned by Willy Wonka. Two film adaptations of the novel were produced. The first was Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, a 1971 film which later became a cult classic. Thirty-four years later, a second film adaptation was produced, titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The 2005 film was very well received by critics^[86] and was one of the highest grossing films of its year, earning over US$470,000,000 worldwide.^[87] Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also recognized at the 78th Academy Awards, where it was nominated for Best Costume Design for Gabriella Pesucci.^[88]

Chocolat is a 1999 novel by Joanne Harris. It tells the story of Vianne Rocher, a young mother, whose confections change the lives of the townspeople through magic. The 2000 film adaptation, Chocolat, also proved successful, grossing over US$150,000,000 worldwide,^[89] and receiving Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Picture, Best Actress, and Best Original Score.^[90][91]

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Sides square off in chocolate fight". Pantagraph. http://www.pantagraph.com/articles/2007/08/07/money/doc46b877b718f6e292646985.txt. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
2. ^ ^{a b c d} "Veterinary Q & A: Chocolate Toxicity". About.com. http://vetmedicine.about.com/cs/nutritiondogs/a/chocolatetoxici.htm. Retrieved on 20 May 2008. 
3. ^ ^{a b} "The American Heritage Dictionary". http://www.bartleby.com/61/68/C0316800.html. Retrieved on 9 May 2009. 
4. ^ Campbell, Lyle. Quichean Linguistic Prehistory; University of California Publications in Linguistics No. 81. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 104. 
5. ^ Santamaria, Francisco. Diccionario de Mejicanismos. Mexico: Editorial Porrúa S. A.. pp. 412-413. 
6. ^ "Cacao and Chocolate A Uto-Aztecan perspective". Ancient Mesoamerica (Cambridge University Press) vol. 11: 55-75. 2000. 
7. ^ ^{a b} "New Chemical Analyses Take Confirmation Back 500 Years and Reveal that the Impetus for Cacao Cultivation was an Alcoholic Beverage". Penn Museum. http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/news/fullrelease.php?which=306. Retrieved on 13 November 2007. 
8. ^ "Chocolate: A Mesoamerican Luxury 250-900 C.E. (A.D.) - Obtaining Cacao". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_mesoamerican3.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
9. ^ "Chocolate: A Mesoamerican Luxury 250-900 C.E. (A.D.) - Making Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_mesoamerican4.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
10. ^ "Chocolate: A Mesoamerican Luxury 250-900 C.E. (A.D.) Using Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_mesoamerican5.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
11. ^ "Achiote (Annatto) Cooking". las Culturas. http://www.lasculturas.com/lib/rcp/rcpAchiote.htm. Retrieved on 21 May 2008. 
12. ^ "A Brief History of Chocolate, Food of the Gods". Athena Review (Athena Pub). http://www.athenapub.com/chocolat.htm. Retrieved on 8 June 2007. 
13. ^ Buford, Bill. "Notes of a Gastronome: Extreme Chocolate: Reporting & Essays: The New Yorker". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/10/29/071029fa_fact_buford. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
14. ^ "Dark chocolate helps diarrhea". Children's Hospital & Research Center at Oakland. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-09/chr-dch092905.php. Retrieved on 2 May 2007. 
15. ^ "Chocolate: A Mesoamerican Luxury 1200—1521 - Obtaining Cacao". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_mesoamerican7.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
16. ^ ^{a b} "Chocolate: A European Sweet". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
17. ^ "Chocolate: A European Sweet - 1521—1600 - Obtaining Cacao". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european3.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
18. ^ "Chocolate: A European Sweet 1521-1600 - Using Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european5.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
19. ^ "Chocolate: A European Sweet - 1600-1750 - Obtaining Cacao". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european8.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
20. ^ ^{a b} "Chocolate: A European Sweet - 1600-1750 - Using Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european10.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
21. ^ "About Hans Sloane". National History Museum. http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/projects/sloane-herbarium/hanssloane.htm. Retrieved on 8 June 2007. 
22. ^ "Chocolate: A Contemporary Confection 1750—1910 - Making Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_contemp4.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
23. ^ "Chocolate: A Contemporary Confection 1750—1910 - Using Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_contemp5.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
24. ^ "Chocolate: A Contemporary Confection 1910—Today - Today's Global Treat". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_contemp6.html. Retrieved on 2 June 2008. 
25. ^ "US Federal Register – White Chocolate; Establishment of a Standard of Identity". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/fr021004.html. Retrieved on 1 June 2008. 
26. ^ "Directive 2000/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 June 2000 relating to cocoa and chocolate products intended for human consumption". Europa. http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber&lg=en&type_doc=Directive&an_doc=2000&nu_doc=36. Retrieved on 1 June 2008. 
27. ^ ^{a b} Ross, Emma. "Dark Chocolate Could Help Hearts". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/08/30/health/main639325.shtml. Retrieved on 29 May 2008. 
28. ^ Ariyoshi, Rita. "The Rarest Chocolate in the World - Surprise: It’s made in Hawai‘i". Spirit of Aloha. http://www.spiritofaloha.com/features/0907/rarest.html. Retrieved on 2 May 2007. 
29. ^ Dillon, Sheila (23 December 2007). "The Food Programme" (Real Audio). BBC Radio 4. http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/foodprogramme_20071223.shtml. 
30. ^ "What's Noka Worth? An investigation in high-priced chocolate". Dallas Food. http://www.dallasfood.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=78. Retrieved on 31 December 2006. 
31. ^ "All About Chocolate: The Cacao Tree". Xocoatl. http://www.xocoatl.org/tree.htm. Retrieved on 20 December 2007. 
32. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Kowalchuk, Kristine. "Cuckoo for Cocoa". Westworld Alberta. http://www.ama.ab.ca/cps/rde/xchg/ama/web/membership_WWarticle-Feb08-UpFront-10192.htm. Retrieved on 1 February 2008. 
33. ^ "Criollo Chocolate: Efficient Food of the Gods". MetaEfficient. http://www.metaefficient.com/food-and-drink/criollo-chocolate-efficient-food-of-the-gods.html. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
34. ^ "Sensational Chocolates: Discover the Intense Robust flavor of 100% “Grand Cru” Chocolate". Sensational Chocolates. http://www.sensationalchocolates.com/ingredients.html. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
35. ^ "What are the varieties of cocoa?". International Cocoa Organization. 21 July 1998. http://web.archive.org/web/20060218083848/http://www.icco.org/questions/varieties.htm. Retrieved on 27 June 2006. 
36. ^ "Harvesting the seeds". Xocoatl. http://www.xocoatl.org/harvest.htm. Retrieved on 20 May 2008. 
37. ^ "At the chocolate factory". The Cocoa Tree. http://www.cocoatree.org/frombeantobar/atthechocolatefactory.asp. Retrieved on 20 May 2008. 
38. ^ Bragg, Lynn (2007). "Letter to CMA from President (pdf)" (PDF). http://www.chocolateusa.org/pdfs/CMA-stakeholder.pdf. Retrieved on 8 June 2007. 
39. ^ "Adopt Regulations of General Applicability to all Food Standards that would Permit, within Stated Boundaries, Deviations from the Requirements of the Individual Food Standards of Identity". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/07p0085/07p-0085.htm. Retrieved on 9 June 2007. 
40. ^ "2007P-0085 Appendix C Changes Allowed to Modernize Food Standards While Retaining The Basic Nature and Essential Characteristics of Standardized Food" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.typetive.com/blogimages/07p-0085AppendixC.pdf. Retrieved on 9 June 2007. 
41. ^ Zonis, Stephanie. "Conching: Crucial Step in Chocolate’s Flavor and Texture?". Sally's Place. http://www.sallys-place.com/food/columns/zonis/conching.htm. Retrieved on 20 May 2008. 
42. ^ ^{a b c} LaBau, Elizabeth. "How To Temper Chocolate". About.com. http://candy.about.com/od/candybasics/ht/temperchoc.htm. Retrieved on 20 May 2008. 
43. ^ "Tips for Chocolate Care". Ghirardelli. http://www.ghirardelli.com/chocopedia/tips.aspx. Retrieved on 16 April 2007. 
44. ^ Miller, Teresa. "Milkfat Fractions Help Beat Blooming Chocolate". College of Agricultural Life and Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://www.cals.wisc.edu/media/news/01_97/milkfat_chocolate.html. Retrieved on 16 April 2007. 
45. ^ "How to Store Chocolate". CocoaBella. http://www.cocoabella.com/chocolates02.php. Retrieved on 16 April 2007. 
46. ^ Separate reference list for the image is available at its main page in Wikimedia Commons: Commons:File:Main health effects of chocolate.png#References.
47. ^ DeNoon, Daniel J.. "Dark Chocolate Is Healthy Chocolate". WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20030827/dark-chocolate-is-healthy-chocolate. Retrieved on 20 May 2008. 
48. ^ Ingall, Marjorie. "Chocolate can do good things for your heart, skin and brain". CNN Health. http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/12/20/health.chocolate/. Retrieved on 20 May 2008. 
49. ^ "BBC NEWS Chocolate better than kissing". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6558775.stm BBC NEWS. Retrieved on 17 February 2007. 
50. ^ Epicatechin
51. ^ "Dark Chocolate May Lower Blood Pressure". WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/news/20050311/dark-chocolate-may-lower-blood-pressure. Retrieved on 29 May 2008. 
52. ^ Serafini, M., Bugianesi, R., Maiani, G., Valtuena, S., De Santis, S. & Crozier, A. 2003. Plasma antioxidants from chocolate. Nature 424, 1013
53. ^ Haynes, Fiona. "Chocolate as a Health Food?". Low Fat Cooking. http://www.lowfatcooking.about.com/od/healthandfitness/a/chochealth.htm. Retrieved on 3 March 2006. 
54. ^ "Chocolate: Food of the Gods.". Yale-New Haven Hospital. http://www.ynhh.org/online/nutrition/advisor/chocolate.html. Retrieved on 3 March 2006. 
55. ^ Kondo K, Hirano R, Matsumoto A, Igarashi O, Itakura H., Inhibition of LDL oxidation by cocoa, Lancet, November 1996; 348(2):1514.
56. ^ "New Benefits Found in Chocolate". Reuters. http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/2/18/181852.shtml. Retrieved on 19 February 2007. 
57. ^ "Cocoa flavonols emerging as functional food ingredients". Nutra Ingredients. http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?n=61523-mars-cocoa-flavonol. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
58. ^ Silverman, Elissa. "The Standard - Mars talks up cocoa's medicinal potential - World Section". The Standard. http://www.thestandard.com.hk/stdn/std/World/GG27Wd10.html. Retrieved on 27 June 2006. 
59. ^ Usmani, Omar S.; Maria G. Belvisi, Hema J. Patel, Natascia Crispino, Mark A. Birrell, Márta Korbonits, Dezso Korbonits, and Peter J. Barnes (February 2005). "Theobromine inhibits sensory nerve activation and cough" (PDF). FASEB Journal 19 (2): 231–233. doi:10.1096/fj.04-1990fje. PMID 15548587. http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/reprint/04-1990fjev1. Retrieved on 27 June 2006. 
60. ^ A study done at Children's Hospital & Research Center Oakland, in collaboration with scientists at Heinrich Heine University in Germany: Schuier, Maximilian; Helmut Sies, Beate Illek, and Horst Fischer (01 October 2005). "Cocoa-Related Flavonoids Inhibit CFTR-Mediated Chloride Transport across T84 Human Colon Epithelia" (PDF). Journal of Nutrition 135 (10): 2320–2325. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/135/10/2320. Retrieved on 2 May 2007. 
61. ^ Adams, Stuart J.. "A Critical Look at the Effects of Cocoa on Human Health.". Pabulum, 2004 Issue 61. http://nutra-smart.net/cocoa.htm. Retrieved on 3 March 2006. 
62. ^ Karl S. Kruszelnicki (8 June 2004). "Chocolate-Flavoured Acne". ABC Science. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/06/08/1110361.htm. 
63. ^ Leah L. Porter (June 2006). "Benefits of Cocoa Polyphenols". The Manufacturing Confectioner. p52. http://www.chocolateusa.org/pdfs/PMCA_article_June06_MC.pdf. 
64. ^ Robyn N. Smith; Mann, Neil J., Braue, Anna, Maekelaeinen, Henna, Varigos, George A. (July 2007). "A low-glycemic-load diet improves symptoms in acne vulgaris patients: A randomized controlled trial". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition vol. 86(1): pp107-115. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/1/107. 
65. ^ Anahad O’Connor (23 February 2009). "The Claim: Sugar in the Diet Can Lead to Acne". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/health/24real.html. 
66. ^ “Chocolate” (http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/(Pages)/Chocolate?OpenDocument). Better Health Channel. Retrieved 3 April 2009.
67. ^ Loren Cordain; Lindeberg, Hurtado, Hill, Eaton, S. Boyd, Brand-Miller (December 2002). "Acne Vulgaris: A Disease of Western Civilization". Archives of Dermatology vol. 138 (12): pp. 1584-1590. http://archderm.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/138/12/1584. 
68. ^ "Sweet News for Managing Blood Sugar.". allchocolate.com. http://www.allchocolate.com/health/basics/glycemic_effects.aspx. Retrieved on 3 April 2009. 
69. ^ Magin P, Pond D, Smith W, Watson A (2005). "A systematic review of the evidence for 'myths and misconceptions' in acne management: diet, face-washing and sunlight". Fam Pract vol. 22 (1): pp62–70. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmh715. PMID 15644386. 
70. ^ Rankin CW; Nriagu JO, Aggarwal JK, Arowolo TA, Adebayo K, Flegal AR (Oct 2005). "Lead contamination in cocoa and cocoa products: isotopic evidence of global contamination (Abstract)". Environmental Health Perspectives vol. 113(10):1344-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16203244. 
71. ^ Karrie Heneman & Sheri Zidenberg-Cherr. "Is Lead Toxicity Still a Risk to U.S. Children?"". California Agriculture vol. 60 (no. 4 2006.). http://calag.ucop.edu/0604OND/pdfs/LeadPoisoning.pdf. Retrieved on 15 February 2007. 
72. ^ Lorraine Heller (29 November 2006). "FDA issues new guidance on lead in candy". FoodNavigator.com. http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/news/ng.asp?id=72399-lead-candy. Retrieved on 15 February 2007. 
73. ^ Canfield RL; Henderson, Cory-Slechta, Cox, Jusko, Lanphear (2003). "Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter (Abstract)". New England Journal of Medicine vol. Apr;348(16):1517-26. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12700371. 
74. ^ "Chocolate with Animals". Animal Poison Control Center. http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=pro_apcc_publicationscocoa. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
75. ^ Drolet R, Arendt TD, Stowe CM. Cacao bean shell poisoning in a dog. JAVMA 1984;185(8): 902.
76. ^ Blakemore F, Shearer GD. The poisoning of livestock by cacao products. Vet Record 1943;55(15).
77. ^ ^{a b} Matissek, R (21 Apr 1997). "Evaluation of xanthine derivatives in chocolate: nutritional and chemical aspects". European Food Research and Technology 205 (3): 175–184. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=2861730. 
78. ^ Liebowitz, Michael R. (1983). The chemistry of love. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 0316524301. 
79. ^ Smit HJ, Gaffan EA, Rogers PJ (2004). "Methylxanthines are the psycho-pharmacologically active constituents of chocolate". Psychopharmacology vol. 176 (iss. 3-4): pp 412–9. doi:10.1007/s00213-004-1898-3. PMID 15549276. 
80. ^ Stevens, Molly. "Sorting Out Chocolate". Taunton. http://www.taunton.com/finecooking/articles/sorting-out-chocolate.aspx. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
81. ^ "National Organic Program". USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/. Retrieved on 7 June 2008. 
82. ^ "Selling Labelled Products". Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International. http://www.fairtrade.net/334.html. Retrieved on 7 June 2008. 
83. ^ "FDA's Standards for High Quality Foods". Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/consumer/updates/foodstandards061807.html. Retrieved on 17 May 2008. 
84. ^ Duncan, Andrew. "Hershey Kisses Potential Buyers Goodbye". Book Sense. http://www.booksense.com/readup/news/archive/0919hershey.jsp. Retrieved on 30 June 2006. 
85. ^ Jones, Sarah (9 April 2009). "U.K. Stocks Fluctuate as Mining Shares Rally; Cadbury Declines". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601102&sid=a5dPcReemm4w&refer=uk. Retrieved on 2009-04-14. 
86. ^ "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory at Rotten Tomatoes". Rotten Tomatoes. http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/charlie_and_the_chocolate_factory/. Retrieved on 29 May 2008. 
87. ^ "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory at Box Office Mojo". Box Office Mojo. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=charliechocolate.htm. Retrieved on 29 May 2008. 
88. ^ "Nominees and Winners - 78th Annual Academy Awards". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. http://www.oscars.org/78academyawards/nomswins.html. Retrieved on 7 June 2008. 
89. ^ "Chocolat at Box Office Mojo". Box Office Mojo. http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=chocolat.htm. Retrieved on 29 May 2008. 
90. ^ "Chocolat at the Academy Awards database". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/BasicSearch?action=searchLink&displayType=3&BSFilmID=38520. Retrieved on 30 May 2008. 
91. ^ "Chocolat at the Golden Globes database". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. http://www.goldenglobes.org/browse/film/23848. Retrieved on 30 May 2008. 

Bibliography

• Coe, Sophie D.; Michael D. Coe (2000). The True History of Chocolate. Thames & Hudson. 

Further reading

• Almond, Steve (2004). Candyfreak: A Journey Through the Chocolate Underbelly of America. Algonquin Books. ISBN 1-565-12421-9. 
• Doutre-Roussel, Chloe (2005). The Chocolate Connoisseur. Piatkus. ISBN 1-585-42488-9. 
• Lebovitz, David (2004). The Great Book of Chocolate. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-580-08495-8. 
• McNeil, Cameron (2006). Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao. University of Florida Press. ISBN 0-813-02953-8. 
• Off, Carol (2006). Bitter Chocolate: Investigating the Dark Side of the World's Most Seductive Sweet. Random House. ISBN 1-595-58330-0. 
• Wolfe, David; Shazzie (2005). Naked Chocolate. Rawcreation. ISBN 1-556-43731-5. 

See also

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Chocolate

Look up chocolate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Chocolate

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chocolate

Main article: Outline of chocolate

• Chocolate chip
• Big Chocolate
• Cacao
• Candida krusei
• Cocoa
• Chocolate milk
• Fudge
• United States military chocolate
• Chocolate activism
• Children in cocoa production
• The chocolate game

External links

• Chocolate at the Open Directory Project
• Glossary of Chocolate Terms
•  "Chocolate". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. 

v • d • e Chocolate History History of chocolate Origins Origin of Chocolate  · Cacao  · Cocoa Varieties Types of chocolate  · Chocolate chip  · Chocolate milk  · Fudge  · Chocolate bar  · Hot chocolate List of chocolate manufacturers

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - chokolade
adj. - chokolade-

idioms:

• chocolate box    chokoladeæske

Nederlands (Dutch)
chocolade, chocolademelk, bonbon, chocoladekleur

Français (French)
n. - chocolat
adj. - brun, couleur chocolat

idioms:

• chocolate box    boîte de chocolats

Deutsch (German)
n. - Schokolade, Praline
adj. - Schokoladen...

idioms:

• chocolate box    Pralinenschachtel

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - σοκολάτα

idioms:

• chocolate box    κουτί σοκολάτες

Italiano (Italian)
cioccolata, cioccolatino

idioms:

• chocolate box    scatola di cioccolatini, ultraromantico

Português (Portuguese)
n. - chocolate (m)

idioms:

• chocolate box    caixa (f) de chocolate
• milk chocolate    chocolate (m) ao leite

Русский (Russian)
шоколад, шоколадная конфета, цвет шоколада

idioms:

• chocolate box    коробка конфет
• milk chocolate    молочный шоколад

Español (Spanish)
n. - chocolate, chocolatín, bombón
adj. - de color chocolate

idioms:

• chocolate box    caja de bombones

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - choklad, chokladbrunt

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
巧克力, 巧克力口味的, 巧克力色的

idioms:

• chocolate box    矫揉造作, 肤浅地漂亮, 巧克力的纸盒

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 巧克力
adj. - 巧克力口味的, 巧克力色的

idioms:

• chocolate box    矯揉造作, 膚淺地漂亮, 巧克力的紙盒

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 초콜릿, 대마초
adj. - 초콜릿(빛)의, 흑인의

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - チョコレート, チョコレート菓子, チョコレート飲料, チョコレート色
adj. - チョコレート色の

idioms:

• chocolate box    チョコレートの化粧箱, ありふれた感傷的な絵

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) الشوكولاته‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮שוקולדה‬
adj. - ‮עשוי שוקולדה‬

If you are unable to view some languages clearly, click here.

To select your translation preferences click here.