coffee

1. 1. Any of various tropical African shrubs or trees of the genus Coffea, especially C. arabica, widely cultivated in the tropics for their seeds that are dried, roasted, and ground to prepare a stimulating aromatic drink.
   2. The beanlike seeds of this plant, enclosed within a pulpy fruit.
   3. The beverage prepared from the seeds of this plant.
2. A moderate brown to dark brown or dark grayish brown.
3. An informal social gathering at which coffee and other refreshments are served.

[Alteration (influenced by Italian caffè, from Turkish) of Ottoman Turkish qahveh, from Arabic qahwa.]

Background

Coffee is a beverage made by grinding roasted coffee beans and allowing hot water to flow through them. Dark, flavorful, and aromatic, the resulting liquid is usually served hot, when its full flavor can best be appreciated. Coffee is served internationally—with over one third of the world's population consuming it in some form, it ranks as the most popular processed beverage—and each country has developed its own preferences about how to prepare and present it. For example, coffee drinkers in Indonesia drink hot coffee from glasses, while Middle Easterners and some Africans serve their coffee in dainty brass cups. The Italians are known for their espresso, a thick brew served in tiny cups and made by dripping hot water over twice the normal quantity of ground coffee, and the French have contributed café au lait, a combination of coffee and milk or cream which they consume from bowls at breakfast.

A driving force behind coffee's global popularity is its caffeine content: a six-ounce (2.72 kilograms) cup of coffee contains 100 milligrams of caffeine, more than comparable amounts of tea (50 milligrams), cola (25 milligrams), or cocoa (15 milligrams). Caffeine, an alkaloid that occurs naturally in coffee, is a mild stimulant that produces a variety of physical effects. Because caffeine stimulates the cortex of the brain, people who ingest it experience enhanced concentration. Athletes are sometimes advised to drink coffee prior to competing, as caffeine renders skeletal muscles less susceptible to exhaustion and improves coordination. However, these benefits accrue only to those who consume small doses of the drug. Excessive amounts of caffeine produce a host of undesirable consequences, acting as a diuretic, stimulating gastric secretions, upsetting the stomach, contracting blood vessels in the brain (people who suffer from headaches are advised to cut their caffeine intake), and causing overacute sensation, irregular heartbeat, and trembling. On a more serious level, many researchers have sought to link caffeine to heart disease, benign breast cysts, pancreatic cancer, and birth defects. While such studies have proven inconclusive, health official nonetheless recommend that people limit their coffee intake to fewer than four cups daily or drink decaffeinated varieties.

Coffee originated on the plateaus of central Ethiopia. By A.D. 1000, Ethiopian Arabs were collecting the fruit of the tree, which grew wild, and preparing a beverage from its beans. During the fifteenth century traders transplanted wild coffee trees from Africa to southern Arabia. The eastern Arabs, the first to cultivate coffee, soon adopted the Ethiopian Arabs' practice of making a hot beverage from its ground, roasted beans.

The Arabs' fondness for the drink spread rapidly along trade routes, and Venetians had been introduced to coffee by 1600. In Europe as in Arabia, church and state officials frequently proscribed the new drink, identifying it with the often-liberal discussions conducted by coffee house habitués, but the institutions nonetheless proliferated, nowhere more so than in seventeenth-century London. The first coffee house opened there in 1652, and a large number of such establishments(café;s) opened soon after on both the European continent(café derives from the French term for coffee) and in North America, where they appeared in such Eastern cities as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia in the last decade of the seventeenth century.

In the United States, coffee achieved the same, almost instantaneous popularity that it had won in Europe. However, the brew favored by early American coffee drinkers tasted significantly different from that enjoyed by today's connoisseurs, as nineteenth-century cookbooks make clear. One 1844 cookbook instructed people to use a much higher coffee/water ratio than we favor today (one tablespoon per sixteen ounces); boil the brew for almost a half an hour (today people are instructed never to boil coffee); and add fish skin, isinglass (a gelatin made from the air bladders of fish), or egg shells to reduce the acidity brought out by boiling the beans so long (today we would discard overly acidic coffee). Coffee yielded from this recipe would strike modern coffee lovers as intolerably strong and acidic; moreover, it would have little aroma.

American attempts to create instant coffee began during the mid-1800s, when one of the earliest instant coffees was offered in cake form to Civil War troops. Although it and other early instant coffees tasted even worse than regular coffee of the epoch, the incentive of convenience proved strong, and efforts to manufacture a palatable instant brew continued. Finally, after using U.S. troops as testers during World War II, an American coffee manufacturer (Maxwell House) began marketing the first successful instant coffee in 1950.

At present, 85 percent of Americans begin their day by making some form of the drink, and the average American will consume three cups of it over the course of the day.

Raw Materials

Coffee comes from the seed, or bean, of the coffee tree. Coffee beans contain more than 100 chemicals including aromatic molecules, proteins, starches, oils, and bitter phenols (acidic compounds), each contributing a different characteristic to the unique flavor of coffee. The coffee tree, a member of the evergreen family, has waxy, pointed leaves and jasmine-like flowers. Actually more like a shrub, the coffee tree can grow to more than 30 feet (9.14 meters) in its wild state, but in cultivation it is usually trimmed to between five and 12 feet (1.5 and 3.65 meters). After planting, the typical tree will not produce coffee beans until it blooms, usually about five years. After the white petals drop off, red cherries form, each with two green coffee beans inside. (Producing mass quantities of beans requires a large number of trees: in one year, a small bush will yield only enough beans for a pound of coffee.) Because coffee berries do not ripen uniformly, careful harvesting requires picking only the red ripe berries: including unripened green ones and overly ripened black ones will affect the coffee taste.

Coffee trees grow best in a temperate climate without frost or high temperatures. They also seem to thrive in fertile, well-drained soil; volcanic soil in particular seems conducive to flavorful beans. High altitude plantations located between 3,000 and 6,000 feet (914.4 and 1,828.8 meters) above sea level produce low-moisture beans with more flavor. Due to the positive influences of volcanic soil and altitude, the finest beans are often cultivated in mountainous regions. Today, Brazil produces about half of the world's coffee. One quarter is produced elsewhere in Latin America, and Africa contributes about one sixth of the global supply.

Currently, about 25 types of coffee trees exist, the variation stemming from environmental factors such as soil, weather, and altitude. The two main species are coffea robusta and coffea arabica. The robusta strain produces less expensive beans, largely because it can be grown under less ideal conditions than the arabica strain. When served, coffee made from arabica beans has a deep reddish cast, whereas robusta brews tend to be dark brown or black in appearance. The coffees made from the two commonly used beans differ significantly. Robusta beans are generally grown on large plantations where the berries ripen and are harvested at one time, thereby increasing the percentage of under- and over-ripe beans. Arabica beans, on the other hand, comprise the bulk of the premium coffees that are typically sold in whole bean form so purchasers can grind their own coffee. Whether served in a coffee house or prepared at home, coffee made from such beans offers a more delicate and less acidic flavor.

The Manufacturing
Process

Drying and husking the cherries

• First, the coffee cherries must be harvested, a process that is still done manually. Next, the cherries are dried and husked using one of two methods. The dry method is an older, primitive, and labor-intensive process of distributing the cherries in the sun, raking them several times a day, and allowing them to dry. When they have dried to the point at which they contain only 12 percent water, the beans' husks become shriveled. At this stage they are hulled, either by hand or by a machine.
• In employing the wet method, the hulls are removed before the beans have dried. Although the fruit is initially processed in a pulping machine that removes most of the material surrounding the beans, some of this glutinous covering remains after pulping. This residue is removed by letting the beans ferment in tanks, where their natural enzymes digest the gluey substance over a period of 18 to 36 hours. Upon removal from the fermenting tank, the beans are washed, dried by exposure to hot air, and put into large mechanical stirrers called hullers. There, the beans' last parchment covering, the pergamino, crumbles and falls away easily. The huller then polishes the bean to a clean, glossy finish.

Cleaning and grading the beans

• The beans are then placed on a conveyor belt that carries them past workers who remove sticks and other debris. Next, they are graded according to size, the location and altitude of the plantation where they were grown, drying and husking methods, and taste. All these factors contribute to certain flavors that consumers will be able to select thanks in part to the grade.
• Once these processes are completed, workers select and pack particular types and grades of beans to fill orders from the various roasting companies that will finish preparing the beans. When beans (usually robusta) are harvested under the undesirable conditions of hot, humid countries or coastal regions, they must be shipped as quickly as possible, because such climates encourage insects and fungi that can severely damage a shipment.
• When the coffee beans arrive at a roasting plant, they are again cleaned and sorted by mechanical screening devices to remove leaves, bark, and other remaining debris. If the beans are not to be decaffeinated, they are ready for roasting.

Decaffeinating

• If the coffee is to be decaffeinated, it is now processed using either a solvent or a water method. In the first process, the coffee beans are treated with a solvent (usually methylene chloride) that leaches out the caffeine. If this decaffeination method is used, the beans must be thoroughly washed to remove traces of the solvent prior to roasting. The other method entails steaming the beans to bring the caffeine to the surface and then scraping off this caffeine-rich layer.

Roasting

• The beans are roasted in huge commercial roasters according to procedures and specifications which vary among manufacturers (specialty shops usually purchase beans directly from the growers and roast them on-site). The most common process entails placing the beans in a large metal cylinder and blowing hot air into it. An older method, called singeing, calls for placing the beans in a metal cylinder that is then rotated over an electric, gas, or charcoal heater.

  Regardless of the particular method used, roasting gradually raises the temperature of the beans to between 431 and 449 degrees Fahrenheit (220-230 degrees Celsius). This triggers the release of steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and other volatiles, reducing the weight of the beans by 14 to 23 percent. The pressure of these escaping internal gases causes the beans to swell, and they increase their volume by 30 to 100 percent. Roasting also darkens the color of the beans, gives them a crumbly texture, and triggers the chemical reactions that imbue the coffee with its familiar aroma (which it has not heretofore possessed).

• After leaving the roaster, the beans are placed in a cooling vat, wherein they are stirred while cold air is blown over them. If the coffee being prepared is high-quality, the cooled beans will now be sent through an electronic sorter equipped to detect and eliminate beans that emerged from the roasting process too light or too dark.
• If the coffee is to be pre-ground, the manufacturer mills it immediately after roasting. Special types of grinding have been developed for each of the different types of coffee makers, as each functions best with coffee ground to a specific fineness.

Instant coffee

• If the coffee is to be instant, it is I V brewed with water in huge percolators after the grinding stage. An extract is clarified from the brewed coffee and sprayed into a large cylinder. As it falls downward through this cylinder, it enters a warm air stream that converts it into a dry powder.

Packaging

• Because it is less vulnerable to flavor and aroma loss than other types of coffee, whole bean coffee is usually packaged in foil-lined bags. If it is to retain its aromatic qualities, pre-ground coffee must be hermetically sealed: it is usually packaged in impermeable plastic film, aluminum foil, or cans. Instant coffee picks up moisture easily, so it is vacuum-packed in tin cans or glass jars before being shipped to retail stores.

Environmental Concerns

Methylene chloride, the solvent used to decaffeinate beans, has come under federal scrutiny in recent years. Many people charge that rinsing the beans does not completely remove the chemical, which they suspect of being harmful to human health. Although the Food and Drug Administration has consequently ruled that methylene chloride residue cannot exceed 10 parts per million, the water method of decaffeination has grown in popularity and is expected to replace solvent decaffeination completely.

Where To Learn More

Books

Davids, Kenneth. Coffee. 101 Productions, 1987.

Pamphlets

"More Fun With Coffee." National Coffee Association.

"The Story of Good Coffee from the Pacific Northwest." Starbucks Coffee Company.

Periodicals

"From Tree to Bean to Cup," Consumer Reports. September, 1987, p. 531.

Globus, Paul. "This Little bean is Big Business," Reader's Digest (Canadian), March, 1986, p. 35.

[Article by: Catherine Kolecki]

A tropical evergreen shrub or small tree of the genus Coffea (Rubiaceae), a native of northeast Africa and adjacent southwest Asia. The beverage known as coffee is made by the hot-water extraction of solubles from the ground roasted beans (seeds) of the shrub. Coffea grows mainly between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn at elevations of 2000–6000 ft (600–1800 m) above sea level, at temperatures near 70°F (21°C), and with annual rains near 60 in. (150 cm).

Annual international commerce is about 75 million bags (standard of 130 lb or 60 kg per bag) of green coffee beans, that is, coffee beans that have been cultivated, harvested, and are ready for commercial processing. The supply generally is a third each from Brazil, Africa, and all other countries. The United States and Europe consume 85% of all world exports. Coffee beverage has no nutritive value and is consumed for its flavor and stimulating effects. The stimulating ingredient in coffee is caffeine. The two main coffee varieties are Arabica with about 1.1% caffeine and Robusta with 2.2%. See also Caffeine.

The coffee plant is a shrub or relatively small tree, often controlled to a height of 15–18 ft (4.5–5.5 m). Coffea arabica (milds) accounts for 69% of world production; C. canephora (robustas), 30%; and all others, 1%. Each species includes several varieties.

After the spring rains, the plant produces white flowers. About 6 months later the flowers are replaced by fruit the size of a small cherry. The cherries can be selectively picked to harvest only ripe ones, or strip-picked to yield mostly ripe but also some over- or underripe fruit. The green coffee beans are the two halves of the seed derived from the processed cherries.

Coffee cherries are processed by either dry or wet methods. In the dry method, the cherries from strip picking are spread on open drying ground and turned frequently to permit thorough drying by the sun and wind. Some producing areas use hot air, indirect steam, and other machine-drying devices. When the coffee cherries are thoroughly dry, they are transferred to hulling machines that remove the skin, pulp, parchment shell, and silver skin in a single operation. In the wet method, freshly picked ripe coffee cherries are fed to a tank for initial washing and removal of stones and other foreign material. The cherries are then transferred to depulping machines that remove the outer skin and most of the pulp, although some pulp mucilage clings to the parchment shells that encase the coffee beans. This is removed in fermentation tanks, usually containing water. The beans are then dried, either in the sun or in mechanical dryers. After drying, the coffee is further processed in machines that remove silver skins, producing green coffee beans. The coffee beans are then machine graded. After processing, the green beans have 10–12% moisture and maintain acceptable quality for about a year.

A series of basic bean processing steps is required to produce the major types of commercial coffee products. First, the green beans are weighed and cleaned, and then they are stored in silos, each containing a single bean type. Green coffee beans to be used for decaffeinated coffee products are processed separately to remove the required amount of caffeine (usually 97% in the United States) and then stored in special silos before further processing.

Roasting and grinding are key steps in producing all coffee products. The roasting step is the most important operation in defining the final product characteristics. Roasting is usually conducted by use of hot combustion gases in rotating cylinders or fluidized-bed systems. When the bean temperature reaches 375–475°F (190–246°C), roasting is terminated by rapidly adding a water quench. The final roast temperature is the critical control point that fixes the flavor and color of the product, and it must be consistent for good quality control. The quenched beans are air cooled and conveyed to storage bins for moisture and temperature equilibration prior to grinding. Residual foreign material (mostly stones) that has passed through the initial cleaning step is removed in transit to the storage bins by means of a high-velocity air lift, which leaves the heavier debris behind. Grinding of the roasted coffee beans is tailored to the requirements of the intended beverage preparation. For example, only coarse cracking of the beans is needed for instant coffee, whereas finer grinds are required for packaged roast and ground coffee. The most commonly used grinder is a multistep steel roll mill. Particle size is controlled by regulation of roll separation.

Instant coffee comprises the dried solids made from water extraction of the soluble solids in roasted and partially ground (cracked) coffee. The extraction process follows the same principle as home brewing using a filter-drip percolator, except that it is much more efficient and results in very high solid-extraction yields. The coffee extract is concentrated from about 20–35% to 50% by using multiple-effect vacuum evaporators or freeze concentration, or a combination of both. The flavor of the final dry product can be enhanced by recovering the aroma and flavor compounds prior to, or as part of, the concentration process and then introducing these to the concentrated extract just before drying. The method of drying defines the instant coffee as either spray dried or freeze dried. Spray drying involves spraying the concentrated aroma-enhanced extract into a concurrently flowing stream of hot combustion gases. Freeze drying uses special high-vacuum equipment to remove water from the frozen extract by sublimation. Freeze-dried coffee is more expensive to produce and requires a much higher investment than the spray-dried product. See also Drying; Extraction.

Decaffeinated coffees represent about 18% of the total coffee consumption in the United States. Decaffeinated coffee was commercially developed in Europe about 1900. The early process involved direct contact of water-moistened beans with a solvent. The principle of moisturizing green coffee before decaffeination remains a key process step for all decaffeination processes, because it facilitates transport of caffeine through the cell walls. A water extraction process was developed in the United States in 1943 which provided a decaffeinated coffee with improved flavor and with very low solvent residues. Natural decaffeination processes were invented and commercialized from the mid-1970s through the 1980. Three processes for natural decaffeinated products are commercially available. The water process is in many ways the same as the earlier water extraction process. However, instead of using a solvent to remove caffeine from a green coffee extract, the extract is decaffeinated by adsorption using activated carbon. The supercritical CO₂ processes use carbon dioxide (CO₂) above its critical temperature (supercritical CO₂) to remove caffeine from green coffee beans. Other so-called natural processes are similar to older solvent processes but use solvents (such as ethyl acetate) considered to be natural, based on the designation “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. See also Activated carbon; Adsorption.

A beverage produced by roasting the beans from the berries of two principal types of shrub: Coffea arabica (arabica coffee) and C. canephora (robusta coffee); Liberian coffee (C. liberica) grows in tropical regions, but quality is inferior and it accounts for less than 1% of world coffee trade. Reputedly discovered in the ninth century in southern Ethiopia by a goatherd whose goats became frisky after eating the berries. Niacin is formed during the roasting process, and coffee can contain 10-40 mg of niacin per 100 g, depending on the extent of roasting, thus making a significant contribution to average intakes of niacin.

Instant coffee (invented by Satori Kato of Chicago, 1901) is dried coffee extract which can be used to make a beverage by adding hot water or milk. It may be manufactured by spray-drying or freeze-drying. Coffee essence is an aqueous extract of roasted coffee; usually about 400 g of coffee/L.

Coffee contains caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee is coffee beans (or instant coffee) from which the caffeine has been extracted with solvent (e.g. methylene or ethylene chloride), carbon dioxide under pressure (supercritical CO₂), or water. Coffee decaffeinated by water extraction is sometimes labelled as ‘naturally’ decaffeinated. The first decaffeinated coffee was introduced by German coffee importer Ludwig Roselius, who received a shipment of beans that had been soaked by seawater during a storm, under the trade name of Sanka (from the French sans caffeine), 1903.

Ethiopia is thought to be the motherland of the first coffee beans, which, throughout the ages, found their way to Brazil and Colombia-the two largest coffee producers today. Coffee plantations abound throughout other South and Central American countries, Cuba, Hawaii, Indonesia, Jamaica and many African nations. There are hundreds of different coffee species but the two most commercially viable are coffea robusta and coffea arabica. The sturdy, disease- resistant coffea robusta, which thrives at lower altitudes, produces beans with a harsher, more single-dimensional flavor than the more sensitive coffea arabica, which grows at high altitudes (3,000 to 6,500 feet) and produces beans with elegant, complex flavors. The coffee plant is actually a small tree that bears a fruit called the "coffee cherry." Growing and tending these coffee trees is a labor-intensive process because blossoms, unripe (green) and ripe red cherries can occupy a tree simultaneously, necessitating hand-picking the fruit. The coffee cherry's skin and pulp surround two beans enclosed in a parchmentlike covering. Once these layers are discarded, the beans are cleaned, dried, graded and hand-inspected for color and quality. The "green" beans (which can range in color from pale green to muddy yellow) are then exported, leaving the roasting, blending and grinding to be done at their destination. Coffee can be composed of a single type of coffee bean or a blend of several types. Blended coffee produces a richer, more complex flavor than single-bean coffees. The length of time coffee beans are roasted will affect the color and flavor of the brew. Among the most popular roasts are American, French, Italian, European and Viennese. American roast (also called regular roast) beans are medium-roasted, which results in a moderate brew-not too light or too heavy in flavor. The heavy-roasted beans are French roast and dark French roast, which are a deep chocolate brown and produce a stronger coffee, and the glossy, brown-black, strongly flavored Italian roast, used for espresso. European roast contains two-thirds heavy-roast beans blended with one-third regular-roast; Viennese roast reverses those proportions. Instant coffee powder is a powdered coffee made by heat-drying freshly brewed coffee. Freeze-dried coffee granules (or crystals) are derived from brewed coffee that has been frozen into a slush before the water is evaporated. Freeze-dried coffee is slightly more expensive than regular instant coffee, but is also reputed to be superior in flavor. Coffee concentrate is a liquid extract of freshly brewed coffee that's diluted with water. It comes in many forms including regular, decaffeinated and flavored (vanilla, chocolate, and so forth) and can be found in most supermarkets. Coffee, tea and cocoa all contain caffeine, a stimulant that affects many parts of the body including the nervous system, kidneys, heart and gastric secretions. With the exception of the Madagascar coffee species-Mascarocoffea vianneyi-which actually grows beans that are decaffeinated, coffee beans must go through a process to produce decaffeinated coffee. The caffeine is removed by one of two methods, either of which is executed before the beans are roasted. In the first method, the caffeine is chemically extracted with the use of a solvent, which must be completely washed out before the beans are dried. The second method-called Swiss water process-first steams the beans, then scrapes away the caffeine-rich outer layers. Though there was once concern about the safety of solvent residues, research has found that the volatile solvents disappear entirely when the beans are roasted. Coffee, whether ground or whole-bean, loses its flavor quickly. To assure the freshest, most flavorful brew, buy fresh coffee beans and grind only as many as needed to brew each pot of coffee. Inexpensive grinders are available at most department and discount stores. Store whole roasted beans in an airtight container in a cool, dry place for up to 2 weeks. For longer storage, freeze whole beans, freezer-wrapped, up to 3 months. Since room- temperature ground coffee begins to go stale within a couple of days after it's ground, it should be refrigerated in an airtight container and can be stored up to 2 weeks. See also café au lait; café brulot; café macchiato; café mocha; caffé americano; caffé latte; cappuccino; espresso; greek coffee; irish coffee; thai coffee; turkish coffee; viennese coffee.

For more information on coffee, visit Britannica.com.

The coffee plant attracted human interest and consumption as early as 800 A.D. in the Kaffe region of Ethiopia. By the fifteenth century the plant was cultivated in Yemen and a beverage made from its beans was sold in Arabian coffeehouses. Constantinople's first coffeehouses had opened by the middle of the sixteenth century. The beverage spread eastward to India and via Mocha on the Arabian Peninsula back to Holland. Venice had a coffeehouse by 1645. The students of Oxford soon follow suit, discovering by 1650 the academic advantages of a beverage that sharpens the wits. Before 1800 much of Europe had coffeehouses and also had witnessed governmental attempts to close them as sources of sedition. Those same governments soon taxed rather than prohibited coffee consumption. Coffeehouses became social and business centers where merchants and shippers gathered to exchange information and make deals. By the late 1660s coffee consumption had spread to North America; New York City's first coffeehouse, The King's Arms, opened in 1696.

Arab coffee cultivators and merchants attempted to monopolize the trade by preventing export of the coffee plant, but by the seventeenth century, the Dutch had acquired coffee plants that they planted in Ceylon. Other Europeans planted coffee in East Asian and, later, Latin American colonies. In the early twenty-first century, milder arabica beans are grown primarily in Latin American and the Caribbean, while more bitter robust a beans come primarily from African and Asian producing countries. Green coffee beans are among the highest-value commodities legally traded in today's world. The Green Coffee Association of New York City formed in 1923 to encourage standard contracts. Much of the product is traded on the Coffee, Sugar, and Cocoa Exchange, now a subset of the New York Board of Trade, and on the London, Tokyo and Brazilian commodity exchanges.

New processing techniques eased preparation of the beverage in the field during the U.S. Civil War. Military demand again hastened easy preparation when Maxwell Coffee developed an instant beverage in 1941, building on Swiss producer Nestle's Nescafe, which that the company had created for Brazilian growers in 1938. In modern production, the exported green beans are precisely roasted and blended in importing countries to produce the flavor that consumers desire; because oxidation causes bitter flavor, the processed coffee must be used quickly or packaged carefully.

Price inelasticity of demand for coffee leads to sharp price fluctuations. To counter these fluctuations, producing countries established the International Coffee Association in 1963 primarily to control price through export quotas; price stability, however, has not been achieved.

With economies of scale in production and distribution, a few firms and their brands dominated U.S. and world production of roasted coffee in the second half of the twentieth century. These companies have distributed their brands primarily through grocery stores. Per capita consumption has fallen in traditional coffee markets, but is rising in such nontraditional markets as Japan and, more recently, China and South Korea; there, as in Great Britain, instant coffee is making inroads into the tea market. In the 1970s specialty coffee producers began to challenge the preeminence in traditional markets of the multinationals and have constituted the most rapidly growing segment of the coffee market in mature economies. These specialty forms of coffee, sold primarily through coffeehouses and gourmet shops, are relatively expensive, differentiated blends processed on a smaller scale. This development echoes the early days of coffee consumption; an increasingly affluent middle class is willing to spend on luxury beverages consumed in inviting shops.

Bibliography

Commodity Research Bureau. The CRB Commodity Yearbook 2001. New York: Wiley, 2001.

Dicum, Gregory, and Nina Luttinger. The Coffee Book: Anatomy of an Industry from the Crop to the Last Drop. New York: New Press, 1999.

Paige, Jeffry, Coffee and Power: Revolution and the Rise of Democracy in Central America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.

—Ann Harper Fender

A drink popular in the Middle East and worldwide.

The first mention of coffee appears to be from a tenth-century pharmacological work by the Persian physician Rhazes (Muhammad ibn Zakariyya alRazi). The coffee bean (the seed from pods of the Coffea arabica tree) is believed to have originated in Ethiopia, traveling to Yemen by way of Arab trade routes. The Yemeni town of Maqha gave its name to a type of coffee, mocha. It had arrived in Mecca by 1511 when it was forbidden by the authorities, and by 1615 it had reached Venice. The popularity of coffee spread throughout the Islamic world, where it gave rise to the coffee houses that have enduring popularity in the Middle East and elsewhere.

Arabic or Turkish-style coffee is always prepared to order. The coffee beans are roasted in large frying pans and ground very fine. The ground coffee and water are brought to a gentle boil in small long-handled pots called rakweh. The coffee is poured into demitasse cups without handles. After the grounds have settled, the coffee is drunk without being stirred. Sugar, cardamom, orange-blossom water, rose water, or saffron may be added to the coffee during the brewing process. Coffee is always served as part of social interactions in the Middle East.

— CLIFFORD A. WRIGHT

Coffee refers to both a plant and to the hot and cold beverages made from the pit or "bean" of its fruit. Coffee contains significant amounts (between 0.8 percent and 2.5 percent) of the stimulant alkaloid caffeine (trimethylxanthine) as well as protein and carbohydrates. The coffee shrub or bush grows as two species, Coffea arabica and C. canephora, and is indigenous to Africa, specifically to the Kaffa region of Ethiopia. The word "coffee" is derived from the Turkish word kahveh, which is rooted in the Arabic word kahwah, meaning wine, this indicating the use of the beverage as a replacement for alcoholic beverages that are forbidden under strict Muslim religious law.

The coffee plant is an evergreen with elliptical, dark shiny green leaves that yields a red husked berry containing a seed pit or "bean." Coffee belongs to the Rubiaceae family and, depending on which of two species from which it is harvested, propagates differently. Coffea arabica is grown principally in Southeast Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Coffea canephora (also known as Coffea robusta) is grown in Africa (mostly in the Congo), India, and Vietnam, which is its leading producer. The arabica is self-pollinating, while the canephora or robusta needs cross-pollination to fruit. After planting, the shrub requires four to five years of growth before it will fruit. When harvested, the ripe red husk is removed from the berry, and the fresh seed can be planted to generate seedlings or dried for planting at a later time. (It is this seed that is the coffee bean as it is commonly understood.)

Processing the beans requires two steps. In the first step, usually in the country of origin, the husk of the berry is left to ferment and soften, which facilitates the extraction of the seed or bean. The beans are then dried and shipped "green" or unroasted to a destination where they are roasted either for local consumption or for packaging and transshipping to other markets. The roasting process has a substantial effect on the color and flavor of the bean and the beverage it will produce. The darker the roast, the stronger the flavor. It is also the roasting process that eliminates water, making the bean more brittle and easier to grind.

Coffea arabica produces the "Arabica," also known as "Brazilian," varieties, which are often preferred for their balanced aroma and rich flavor. The best, rarest, and most sought after arabica types are harvested in Indonesia, Jamaica, Hawaii, and Colombia, where they are grown on small production farms at a relatively slow and steady growth rate, developing flavorful berries. (In this way they may be said to parallel wine production.) Coffea canephora, or robusta, tends to be strong and bitter. Because Coffea canephora can resist frost and disease and can sustain warmer climates and lower elevations, it experiences faster growth patterns and higher fruit yields. This generally results in beans that contain more caffeine than arabica types but that lack subtlety and flavor. The canephora bean is said by experts to be neutral by comparison to arabica.

Table 1

It is believed that the earliest producers of coffee, the Ethiopians, did not brew coffee as it is recognized in the twenty-first century from the roasted beans but made drinks from the bitter berries, combined the roasted beans with butter or animal fat (most likely that of mutton), or chewed roasted beans as a mild stimulant. Numerous tales on the subject of coffee and its discovery exist. One of the most persistent is of a ninth-century Ethiopian goat herder intrigued by his intoxicated, hyperactive flock. Having grown curious, he sampled berries his goats had been eating and felt similarly stimulated.

No extensive or significant use of the coffee crop has developed among Ethiopia's indigenous peoples, and it became an exotic crop for them, exported first to Yemen, then to other Arab nations. It is noteworthy that coffee production did not develop in Africa until the twentieth century and that consumption there is minor. (The berries are sometimes used to enhance teas, which are generally preferred as beverages there.)

A primitive approach to making the coffee beverage may have originated at the beginning of the eleventh century in Ethiopia, however, this was likely learned through Arab traders who ground roasted beans into a fine powder and stirred it into hot water. Most scholars believe the antecedents of modern brewed coffee drinks were developed in the late fourteenth or early fifteenth centuries in Yemen and accredit the processing of the beans—roasting, grinding, and ultimately brewing the pungent hot drink—to a sheik of the Sufi order. Irrespective of the drink's origins, wild coffee plants may have been cultivated as early as the sixth century, but it was not until the fifteenth century that the coffee bush, Coffea arabica, is believed to have been domesticated, developed as an agricultural product, and spread throughout Muslim nations from Southwest Asia to Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago.

When first brought into widespread use, coffee was usually taken as a dark, bitter drink. Sugar was rarely used in the Arabian beverage, perhaps for fear that it would overstimulate the mind. The spice cardamom was often added to the brew for a naturally sweet flavor, and perhaps to counterbalance or mediate its bitter essence. Cardamom-flavored coffee is most commonly associated with the beverage known as Turkish coffee, as is the eleventh-century approach to boiling the grounds as a brewing technique. (Sugar is often added in this version as well.)

Historically coffee was the subject of frequent controversy and confusion, and its rise—much like tea—parallels the development of international trade and economic interdependencies. Coffee was perceived, for example, early in its development to have medicinal benefits, including as a curative for mange, sore eyes, dropsy, and gout. However, it was also feared that, when mixed with milk, coffee caused leprosy. Coffee was often at the center of political turmoil, especially through the development of coffeehouses in the Ottoman Empire and throughout Europe, where people could congregate and discuss ideas in an atmosphere conducive to (literally) stimulated conversation. Coffeehouses were associated with the plotting of insurrection in the Ottoman Empire and of both the American and French Revolutions, for example.

Coffee is one of the most common delivery systems for drugs in the world. Its caffeine stimulates the brain, improving one's focus. It is also a diuretic, washing out the kidneys. When taken in large quantities, the stimulant causes irregular heartbeat, uncontrollable shaking, and dehydration. Despite—or because of—these characteristics, by the beginning of the sixteenth century coffee drinking was widespread in the Middle East. Its powerful physical effects, however, were such that some Muslim scholars interpreted it as being contradictory to the spirit of the Koran and tried to forbid it. Others opposed its banishment and ironically included the beverage in religious worship. (Records of the period indicate that coffee was drunk inside the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia.) Early accounts exist of coffee drinking, ostensibly for the purpose of staying awake to pray and chant, during the evenings of the one-month fasting of Ramadan.

Coffee is also associated with superstitions and rituals. For example, not unlike tea leaf reading by Chinese fortune tellers, Turkish fortune tellers use the finished cup of coffee—which contains both liquid and grounds—turning it onto the saucer until cool. The cup is then turned back up, and any coffee grounds remaining in the cup are "read" as a basis for predicting the future.

From roughly the fifteenth century to the eighteenth century, coffee trade was monopolized by the Yemenis. The English and the Dutch traded with the Arabs at the major trading port of Mocha in Yemen for nearly half a century before they found a way to break the Arab monopoly. Ultimately Dutch smugglers stole beans from Mocha, carrying them to colonial Java in Indonesia for propagation. Through the Dutch act of pilferage, Indonesian coffee plantations came to produce an arabica bean popularly known as "Java." (Eventually this bean was described by connoisseurs as among the finest arabica available.) The Dutch also sent beans back to Amsterdam for propagation in greenhouses. In short order coffee propagation and drinking spread rapidly throughout the Western Hemisphere and the European colonies. In an act of repilferage, for example, the French king Louis XIV engineered the theft of plants from Amsterdam, and these plants eventually were responsible for the development of coffee plantations in French colonial Martinique. In 1723 the coffee business was born of a coffee bush originating in Martinique and eventually engendered a New World coffee industry that by the twentieth century was responsible for 90 percent of coffee production internationally.

The early to mid-seventeenth century saw the rapid spread of coffee consumption throughout Europe, especially northern Europe, resulting in a significant demand. The possibility of financial fortunes along with the possibilities of lucrative taxes and perceived medical benefits made for both free market and government-encouraged spread of cultivation in tropical and subtropical climes across the globe.

Cultivation spread throughout Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, Latin America, Africa, and Brazil. The first Brazilian coffee bush was planted in 1727, for example, and it was cultivated by slave labor. While the crop experienced a somewhat slow beginning there, by the end of the nineteenth century Brazil's coffee-growing industry was profitable. By the early twenty-first century Brazil was the world's largest coffee exporting nation with Vietnam running second.

Coffee and its patterns of consumption were historically linked to politics as well as perceived curative and stimulant benefits. Originally coffee was enjoyed almost exclusively in coffeehouses, which were founded as specialty shops for the purpose of selling coffee by enticing traders to try the new beverage. The first coffeehouse (or café) opened in Constantinople in 1555, and within a few years the city counted hundreds of such establishments. In rapid turn the coffeehouse became a place for socializing. Paralleling the social patterns of teahouses in China, coffeehouses became meeting places for casual conversation and business and political discussions, including revolutionary strategies. The empire's rulers quickly became concerned with the popularity of such places, where discontented commoners and intellectuals alike could gather and political uprising could be discussed. (Restaurants either did not exist or were forbidden.) Ottoman coffeehouse proprietors were subject to harsh punishments, including being sewn in a bag and thrown in the Bosporus.

Political mechanisms proved inadequate to stem rising enthusiasm for coffee and coffeehouses, however. Great profit centers, coffeehouses were often built in extravagant styles, imparting a social caché to the beverage. Spread by war and commerce, coffeehouses opened in European capitals throughout the early to late seventeenth century, increasing the beverage's popularity and supporting demand.

While coffee was a sort of luxury beverage at first, by the eighteenth century even less-fortunate Europeans could enjoy it (or some adulterated version of it) through sales by street hawkers. Innkeepers also made it part of their family-style menus, and some food historians link the introduction of coffee to creating the sequencing of a meal. In the mid–to late eighteenth century North American colonials drank coffee increasingly as a sort of protest against high British taxes on tea. Free to trade after independence (1776), Americans imported coffee initially from Haiti and Martinique, then Portugal and Brazil. By the mid-nineteenth century Americans consumed an average of over six pounds per capita annually. To a large extent the commercialization, mechanization, marketing, and democratization of coffee in North America evolved the beverage in modern times. The nineteenth century also saw the introduction of the drink in various styles, including Italian espresso (a concentrated one-ounce liquid), cappuccino (a "long" espresso with frothed milk), French café au lait or Spanish café con leche (strong coffee with plenty of hot milk), or iced coffee with or without milk. Other popular combinations are Irish coffee, which includes whiskey and Baileys Irish Cream, and Vietnamese or Thai coffees, in which sweet condensed milk is added.

Coffee can be "pure," using either the arabica or robusta bean, or it can be a blend of the two. One of the oldest blends simply combines various proportions of robusta and arabica beans, making the resulting item either more smooth or more bitter. Some of the more innovative blends include hazelnut and vanilla flavorings, these tied to the late twentieth-century, principally American interest in "gourmet" coffees. While for hundreds of years coffee consumers in Europe purchased a brewed cup of the beverage for quick consumption, in the United States green beans generally were sold in bulk for home roasting. This shift from public coffeehouse to domestic brewing had a profound effect on the industry and psychology of coffee consumption. The American development essentially stripped coffee of its political import, making it a modern commodity.

In other North American developments, at the end of the American Civil War, San Francisco's Folger's Coffee company gave customers a choice, offering both traditional green coffee beans and the more efficient and time-saving roasted beans. A new industry was born, and the tendency toward efficiency and rapid brewing was exacerbated. The Maxwell House company soon followed in Folger's footsteps, and in 1901 the first Maxwell House "instant" coffee came to market. This instant coffee was made by extracting water from brewed coffee and freeze-drying the remains. Other innovations followed. Decaffeinated coffee, which has significantly reduced amounts of caffeine, was made by steaming unroasted beans or by using a solvent, usually chlorine, to remove the caffeine. Because this process also removes some of the flavor from the beans, the stronger robusta variety is usually employed for decaffeinated coffees.

While coffee was added to a pot of water and boiled to produce the earliest versions of the beverage, Arab producers eventually filtered the brew through herbs to hold back the sediment. In eighteenth-century France, coffee was filtered through muslin bags, an innovative but ultimately inadequate process. The expatriate American inventor Benjamin Thompson—also known as Count Rumford—developed the broadly successful metal "drip pot," and a number of other inventors developed variations on coffee-brewing devices, many of which have remained in use in the twenty-first century. In 1819, for example, the percolator was invented in which hot water rises through a tube and into an upper container and infuses coffee. The early twentieth century saw the advent of true coffee filtering devices, particularly through the development of paper filters by the German Melitta Bentz Company in 1908.

The espresso machine (from Italian caffè espresso, literally, "pressed-out coffee") is usually associated with Italy, but it was pioneered in the early nineteenth century in German and French machines that used steam to push steam through coffee grounds. The modern espresso machine, patented in Italy in early-twentieth-century Italy, was developed by Desidero Pavoni (who bought the rights to the espresso machine patent in 1905), and was dramatically improved in Italy after World War II. The hiss of the espresso machine was a common sound in the Italian caffés of San Francisco's North Beach and in New York City's Greenwich Village decades before espresso and cappuccino became fashionable around the 1980s.

The difference in machines and grounds is important in the outcome of any coffee brew. For example, the espresso machine uses twice the amount of coffee as a percolator, a much finer ground of coffee, and much less water (actually steam), resulting in a dark, strong, bitter extraction. Different grinds exist for different styles of brewing. Coarse grounds are used to make filtered coffee, fine grounds are used to make Italian espresso, and even finer grounds resembling the consistency of flour are used to make boiled Turkish coffee.

Harvested, roasted, traded worldwide, and consumed by people from different walks of life, coffee has created significant social crossroads for centuries. Once a luxurious beverage, coffee is enjoyed internationally by a diverse populace. Most often a morning beverage, its popularity has soared as both an afternoon and an afterdinner beverage. Variations abound. Aside from flavored and decaffeinated coffees, bottled coffees, coffee sodas, and other drinks are available.

Embracing this trend, and operating over 5,500 stores internationally (over four thousand in the United States alone), Starbucks is the leading coffeehouse chain of the twenty-first century. It sells coffees with multiple options (would you like a slice of banana nut loaf with your iced, decaf mocha java?) at the elevated average price of $3.50 per cup in a lounge setting, and has pastries (and sometimes, sandwiches) available for purchase. This creates a comfortable atmosphere for conversation and reading, without any pressure to make a purchase and leave. Thus, since the early 1990s Starbucks has created a coffeehouse culture for the masses. With its appeal extending from corporate executives to students and housewives, it has brought the former aristocratic atmosphere into the mainstream. In this way it typifies the late-twentieth-, early-twenty-first-century "mass-class" and "leisure-time entertainment" marketing strategies. The success of Starbucks is also bolstered by its ability to extend the brand by selling T-shirts, travel mugs, and other coffee-related accessories in its stores. Starbucks also sells coffee beans and ice cream.

Coffee is not only a modern beverage but also an ingredient in desserts, including coffee ice creams, coffee gelati, and coffee-flavored cakes. Variations include the American "chimney sweep" recipe, in which vanilla ice cream is topped with powdered coffee and drizzled with a shot of whiskey. Italian tiramisu has lady fingers soaked in espresso coffee and set in a whipped mascarpone cream. In addition, an American classic dish called "Black-eyed steak" employs coffee to deglaze a cast-iron pan in which a slice of salt-cured Virginia Smithfield ham has been pan-fried; the bitter and salty jus is poured over the meat prior to serving.

Bibliography

Bramah, Edward. Tea and Coffee: A Modern View of 300 Years of Tradition. 2d ed. London: Hutchinson, 1972.

Filho, Olavo B. A fazenda de cafe em Sao Paulo. Rio de Janiero: Ministerio da Agricultura, 1952.

Guyer-Stevens, Stephanie, et al. "Starbucks: To Drink or Not to Drink?" Whole Earth, Summer (2002): 15.

Hattox, Ralph S. Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988.

Heise, Ulla. Kaffee und Kaffeehaus [Coffee and the coffee house]. Hildeshiem, Germany: Olms Presse, 1987.

Kiple, Kenneth F., and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas. The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribners, 1984.

Poole, Buzz. "Café Culture." Whole Earth Summer (2002): 10.

Samrowski, Dietrich. Geschichte der Kaffeemuehlen [History of coffee grinders]. Munich, Self-published, 1983.

Schoenholt, Donald N. "The Economy of Coffee, Supply Glut, Crashing Prices, Desperate Farmers: What's the Solution?" Whole Earth, (Summer 2002): 12–14.

Tannahill, Reay. Food in History. New, fully revised, and updated edition. New York: Crown, 1989. Original edition 1973.

Thurber, Francis B. Coffee: From Plantation to Cup. New York: American Grocer Publishing, 1881.

Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne. History of Food. Translated by Anthea Bell. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1993.

Windridge, Charles. The Fountain of Health: An A–Z of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Consulted and edited by Wu Xiaochun. Edinburgh: Mainstream, 1994.

—Corinne Trang

For regular coffee drinkers, this could simply be a reflection of one's everyday life experience in one's dreams. A social ritual; friendship. Alternatively, it might mean something we thirst for. A common idiom is to "wake up and smell the coffee," meaning to give something more attention.

For other uses, see Coffee (disambiguation).

Coffee

A cup of coffee
Type	Hot or cold beverage
Manufacturer	Varied
Country of origin	Ethiopia
Introduced	Approx. 800 AD
Color	Brown

Coffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant. Due to its caffeine content, coffee has a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide.^[1]

The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.^[2] From Ethiopia, coffee spread to Egypt and Yemen, and by the 15th century, had reached Armenia, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.^[3]

Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown species are Coffea canephora (also known as Coffea robusta) and Coffea arabica; less popular species are Liberica, Excelsa, Stenophylla, Mauritiana, Racemosa. These are cultivated in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted, undergoing several physical and chemical changes. They are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways.

Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption until the reign of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.^[4] It was banned in Ottoman Turkey in the 17th century for political reasons,^[5] and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.

Coffee is an important export commodity. In 2004, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries,^[6] and in 2005, it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value.^[7]

Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are positive or negative is still disputed.^[8]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Biology 4 Cultivation 4.1 Production 4.2 Ecological effects 4.3 Economics 4.4 Coffee as a commodity 5 Processing 5.1 Roasting 5.2 Storage 5.3 Preparation 5.4 Presentation 5.5 Types of popular coffee beverages 6 Social aspects 7 Health and pharmacology 7.1 Caffeine content 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links

Etymology

The term was introduced to Europe by the Ottoman Turkish kahve, which is, in turn, derived from the Arabic: قهوة‎, qahweh.^[9][10] The origin of the Arabic term is derived either from the name of the Kaffa region in western Ethiopia, where coffee was cultivated, or by a truncation of qahwat al-būnn, meaning "wine of the bean" in Arabic. The English word coffee first came to be used in the early to mid-1600s, but early forms of the word date to the last decade of the 1500s.^[11] In Ethiopia's neighbor Eritrea, "būnn" (also meaning "wine of the bean" in Tigrinya) is used.^[12] The Amharic and Afan Oromo name for coffee is bunna.

History

Main article: History of coffee

Over the door of a Leipzig coffeeshop is a sculptural representation of a man in Turkish dress, receiving a cup of coffee from a boy.

It is supposed that the Ethiopians, the ancestors of today's Galla tribe, were the first to have recognized the energizing effect of the coffee plant.^[2] However, no direct evidence has ever been found revealing exactly where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it there earlier than the seventeenth century.^[2] The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal.^[2] The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.^[2] From Ethiopia, coffee spread to Egypt and Yemen^[13]. It was in Arabia that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed, similar to how it is done today. By the 15th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.^[3]

In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten-year trip to the Near East:^[14]

“

A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu.

”

From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between Venice and North Africa, Egypt, and the Middle East brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink." The first European coffee house opened in Italy in 1645.^[3] The Dutch were the first to import coffee on a large scale, and they were among the first to defy the Arab prohibition on the exportation of plants or unroasted seeds when Pieter van den Broeck smuggled seedlings from Aden into Europe in 1616.^[15] The Dutch later grew the crop in Java and Ceylon.^[16] The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the Netherlands occurred in 1711.^[17] Through the efforts of the British East India Company, coffee became popular in England as well. It was introduced in France in 1657, and in Austria and Poland after the 1683 Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated Turks.^[18]

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful as it had been in Europe. During the Revolutionary War, however, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants.^[19] After the War of 1812, during which Britain temporarily cut off access to tea imports, the Americans' taste for coffee grew, and high demand during the American Civil War together with advances in brewing technology secured the position of coffee as an everyday commodity in the United States.^[20]

Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many Third World countries. Over one hundred million people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income (Ponte 1). Coffee has become the primary export and backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia^[21] as well as many Central American countries.(1)

Biology

Main article: Coffea

Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seeds

The Coffea plant is native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia.^[22] It belongs to a genus of ten species of flowering plants of the family Rubiaceae. It is an evergreen shrub or small tree that may grow 5 meters tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 100–150 millimeters long and 60 millimeters wide. It produces clusters of fragrant white flowers that bloom simultaneously. The fruit berry is oval, about 15 millimeters long,^[23] and green when immature, but ripens to yellow, then crimson, becoming black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries^[24] have only one; these are called peaberries.^[25] Berries ripen in seven to nine months.

Cultivation

Main article: Coffee varieties

Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation.^[23]

Map showing areas of coffee cultivation:
r:Coffea canephora
m:Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica
a:Coffea arabica

The two main cultivated species of the coffee plant are Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica. Arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica.^[22] However, C. canephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be cultivated in environments where C. arabica will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica.^[26] For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in some espresso blends to provide a better foam head, a full-bodied result, and to lower the ingredient cost.^[27] Other cultivated species include Coffea liberica and Coffea esliaca, believed to be indigenous to Liberia and southern Sudan, respectively.^[26]

Most arabica coffee beans originate from either Latin America, eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and central Africa, throughout southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil.^[22] Beans from different countries or regions usually have distinctive characteristics such as flavor, aroma, body, and acidity.^[28] These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffee's growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing.^[29] Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java or Kona.

Production

Brazil is the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by Vietnam and Colombia the last of which produces a much softer coffee.

Top ten green coffee producers — Tonnes (2008) and Bags thousands (2007)
Country	Tonnes (1)	Bags (2)	Footnote
Brazil	17,000,000	36,070
Vietnam	15,580,000	18,000	*
Colombia	9,400,000	12,400	F
Indonesia	2,770,554	6,446	*
Ethiopia	1,705,446	5,733	*
Mexico	962,000	4,500	F
India	954,000	4,367	F
Peru	677,000	4,250	est. 2008
Guatemala	568,000	4,000	F
Honduras	370,000	3,833	F
World	7,742,675	118,920	A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/semiofficial/mirror data, C = calculated figure, A = aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates) Source (1): Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Devision Source (2):International Coffee Organization

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Ecological effects

Main article: Coffee and the environment

A flowering Coffea arabica tree in a Brazilian plantation

Originally, coffee farming was done in the shade of trees, which provided habitat for many animals and insects.^[30] This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method or "shade-grown". Many farmers have decided to switch their production method to sun cultivation, a method in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides.^[31] When compared to the sun cultivation method, traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.^{[citation needed]} In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and serves as a habitat for many species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices.^[30] The American Birding Association has led a campaign for "shade-grown" and organic coffees, which it says are sustainably harvested.^[32] However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare poorly to native forest in terms of habitat value.^[33]

Another issue concerning coffee is its use of water. According to New Scientist, it takes about 140 litres of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.^[34]

Economics

This article relies extensively on quotes that were previously collated by an advocacy or lobbying group. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. (July 2008)

Main article: Economics of coffee

See also: List of countries by coffee consumption per capita

Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of tap water in North America and Europe.^[1] Worldwide, 6.7 million metric tons of coffee were produced annually in 1998–2000, and the forecast is a rise to 7 million metric tons annually by 2010.^[35]

Brazil remains the largest coffee exporting nation, but in recent years, Vietnam has become a major producer of robusta beans.^[36] Indonesia is the third-largest exporter and the largest producer of washed arabica coffee. Robusta coffees, traded in London at much lower prices than New York's arabica, are preferred by large industrial clients, such as multinational roasters and instant coffee producers because of the lower cost.

The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest price, began with the Max Havelaar Foundation's labeling program in the Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.^[37][38] A number of studies have shown that fair trade coffee has a positive impact on the communities that grow it. A study in 2002 found that fair trade strengthened producer organizations, improved returns to small producers, and positively affected their quality of life.^[39] A 2003 study concluded that fair trade has "greatly improved the well-being of small-scale coffee farmers and their families"^[40] by providing access to credit and external development funding^[41] and greater access to training, giving them the ability to improve the quality of their coffee.^[42] The families of fair trade producers were also more stable than those who were not involved in fair trade, and their children had better access to education.^[43] A 2005 study of Bolivian coffee producers concluded that fair trade certification has had a positive impact on local coffee prices, economically benefiting all coffee producers, fair trade-certified or not.^[44]

The production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown in recent years as some local and national coffee chains have started to offer fair trade alternatives.^[45]

Coffee as a commodity

While coffee is not technically a commodity (it is fresh produce; its value is directly affected by the length of time it is held), coffee is bought and sold by roasters, investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity. Coffee futures contracts for Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) under ticker symbol KT, with contract deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and December.^[46] Higher and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through other channels. Futures contracts for robusta coffee are traded on the London Liffe exchange and, since 2007, on the New York ICE exchange.

Processing

Roasting

Main articles: Coffee processing and Coffee roasting

Roasted coffee beans

Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar roasted coffee. First, coffee berries are picked, generally by hand. Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds—usually called beans—are fermented to remove the slimy layer of mucilage still present on the bean. When the fermentation is finished, the beans are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of highly polluted coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried. The best (but least utilized) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee; then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most coffee from Africa is dried in this manner and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method. Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the coffee beans dry is to let them sit on a cement patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee beans, though this is generally in places where the humidity is very high.^[47]

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted.^[48] The roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for packaging. The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches 200°C, though different varieties of beans differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates.^[49] During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches in the bean, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, changing the color of the bean.^[50] Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils, acids, and caffeine weaken, changing the flavor; at 205°C, other oils start to develop.^[49] One of these oils is caffeol, created at about 200°C, which is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.^[16]

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted beans illuminated with a light source in the near infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted coffee’s relative degree of roast or flavor development. Such devices are routinely used for quality assurance by coffee-roasting businesses.

Darker roasts are generally smoother, because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have more caffeine, resulting in a slight bitterness, and a stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.^[51] A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the bean after processing.^[52] Chaff is usually removed from the beans by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the beans.^[49] Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking beans in hot water or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils.^[16] Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry.^[16]

Storage

Once roasted, coffee beans must be stored properly to preserve the fresh taste of the bean. Ideally, the container must be airtight and kept cool. In order of importance, air, moisture, heat, and light are the environmental factors^[53] responsible for deteriorating flavor in coffee beans.

Folded-over bags, a common way consumers often purchase coffee, are generally not ideal for long-term storage because they allow air to enter. A better package contains a one-way valve, which prevents air from entering.^[53]

Preparation

Main article: Coffee preparation

Espresso brewing, with dark reddish-brown crema

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed in order to create a beverage. Grinding the roasted coffee beans is done at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. They are most commonly ground at a roastery and then packaged and sold to the consumer, though "whole bean" coffee can be ground at home. Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr mill uses revolving elements to shear the bean; an electric grinder smashes the beans with blunt blades moving at high speed; and a mortar and pestle crushes the beans.

The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish grind is the finest grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are between the extremes; a medium grind is used in most common home coffee brewing machines.^[54]

Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressured. Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method.^[55] It is prepared by powdering the beans with a mortar and pestle, then adding the powder to water and bringing it to a boil in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settling on the bottom of the cup.^[55]

Machines such as percolators or automatic coffeemakers brew coffee by gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter made of paper or perforated metal, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. Gravity causes the liquid to pass into a carafe or pot while the used coffee grounds are retained in the filter.^[56] In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then passes downward through the grounds due to gravity, repeating the process until shut off by an internal timer^[56] or, more commonly, a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature. This thermostat also serves to keep the coffee warm (it turns on when the pot cools), but requires the removal of the basket holding the grounds after the initial brewing to avoid additional brewing as the pot reheats. Purists do not feel that this repeated boiling is conducive to achieving the best-flavoured coffee. There is a measuring convention adopted for automatic coffeemakers, that is unique to coffee preparation, namely, using "cup" to mean 6 ounces instead of 8 ounces of fluid. The increments labeled on the pot and water reservoir of an automatic coffeemaker usually correspond to this convention. This is because, typically, one uses about 1 rounded tablespoon of ground coffee per 6 ounces of water.

Coffee may also be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière or coffee press). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a coffee press and left to brew for a few minutes. A plunger is then depressed to separate the coffee grounds, which remain at the bottom of the container. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the beverage, making it stronger and leaving more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine.^[57]

The espresso method forces hot (but not boiling) pressurized water through ground coffee. As a result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the amount of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution. A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.^[54] The drink "Americano" is popularly thought to have been named after American soldiers in WW II who found the European way of drinking espresso too strong; baristas would cut the espresso with hot water for them.

Presentation can be an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the fancy design layered into this latte.

Coffee may also be produced via a cold brew process, in which the water used is not heated beforehand. This preparation typically involves steeping coarsely ground beans in cold water for several hours, then removing the grounds with a filter.

Presentation

French petit noir

Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served with no additives or sugar (colloquially known as black) or with milk, cream, or both. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.

Espresso-based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, it is served alone as a shot or in the more watered-down style café américano—a shot or two of espresso with hot water added^[58] (reversing the process by adding espresso to hot water preserves the crema, and is known as a long black). Milk can be added in various forms to espresso: steamed milk makes a cafè latte,^[59] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a cappuccino,^[58] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato.^[60] The use of steamed milk to form patterns such as hearts or maple leaves is referred to as latte art.

A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their own coffee. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water.^[61] Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China, Japan, and South Korea. Vending machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically lightly sweetened and preblended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the United States.^[62] Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The machines used can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is preheated.^[63]

Types of popular coffee beverages

Main article: List of coffee beverages

Social aspects

Main article: Social aspects of coffee

See also: Coffeehouse for a social history of coffee, and caffè for specifically Italian traditions.

A coffeehouse in Palestine (1900)

Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,000 years ago, traders brought coffee across the Red Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where Muslim monks began cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At first, the Arabians made wine from the pulp of the fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was used during religious ceremonies.^{[citation needed]}

Coffee became the substitute beverage in spiritual practices where wine was forbidden.^[64] Coffee drinking was briefly prohibited by Muslims as haraam in the early years of the 16th century, but this was quickly overturned. Use in religious rites among the Sufi branch of Islam led to coffee's being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of being a heretical substance, and its production and consumption were briefly repressed. It was later prohibited in Ottoman Turkey under an edict by the Sultan Murad IV.^[65] Coffee, regarded as a Muslim drink, was prohibited by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians until as late as 1889; it is now considered a national drink of Ethiopia for people of all faiths. Its early association in Europe with rebellious political activities led to its banning in England, among other places.^[66]

A contemporary example of coffee prohibition can be found in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.^[67] The organization claims that it is both physically and spiritually unhealthy to consume coffee.^[68] This comes from the Mormon doctrine of health, given in 1833 by Mormon founder Joseph Smith in a revelation called the Word of Wisdom. It does not identify coffee by name, but includes the statement that "hot drinks are not for the belly," which has been interpreted to forbid both coffee and tea.^[68]

Quite a number of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also avoid caffeinated drinks. In its teachings, the Church requires members to avoid tea and coffee and other stimulants. Studies conducted on Adventists have shown a small but statistically significant association between coffee consumption and mortality from ischemic heart disease, other cardiovascular disease, all cardiovascular diseases combined, and all causes of death.^[69]

Health and pharmacology

Main article: Coffee and health

Scientific studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and an array of medical conditions. Findings are contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding the negative effects of coffee consumption.^[8]

Overview of the more common effects of caffeine,^[70] a main active component of coffee

Coffee consumption has been shown to have minimal or no impact, positive or negative, on cancer development;^[71] however, researchers involved in an ongoing 22-year study by the Harvard School of Public Health state that "the overall balance of risks and benefits [of coffee consumption] are on the side of benefits."^[71] Various other studies have shown apparent reductions in the risks of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, heart disease, diabetes mellitus type 2, cirrhosis of the liver,^[72] and gout. A longitudinal study in 2009 showed that moderate drinkers of coffee (3-5 cups per day) had lower chances of developing dementia, in addition to Alzheimer's disease ^[73]. It increases the risk of acid reflux and associated diseases.^[74] Some health effects of coffee are due to its caffeine content, as the benefits are only observed in those who drink caffeinated coffee while others appear to be due to other components.^[75] For example, the antioxidants in coffee prevent free radicals from causing cell damage.^[76]

Caffeine is the major coffee constituent which the coffee tolerance or intolerance depends on. In a healthy liver, the majority of caffeine is degraded by the hepatic microsomal enzymatic system. Caffeine is mostly degraded to paraxanthine substances, partially to theobromine and theophylline, and a small amount of unchanged caffeine is excreted by urine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver. Elderly individuals with a depleted enzymatic system do not tolerate coffee with caffeine. They are recommended to take decaffeinated coffee, and this only if their stomach is healthy, because both decaffeinated coffee and coffee with caffeine cause heartburn. Moderate amounts of coffee (50-100 mg of caffeine or 5-10 g of coffee powder a day) are well tolerated by a majority of elderly people. Excessive amounts of coffee, however, can in many individuals cause very unpleasant, exceptionally even life-threatening side effects.^[77]

Coffee consumption can lead to iron deficiency anemia in mothers and infants.^[78] Coffee also interferes with the absorption of supplemental iron.^[79]

American scientist Yaser Dorri has suggested that the smell of coffee can restore appetite and refresh olfactory receptors. He suggests that people can regain their appetite after cooking by smelling coffee beans, and that this method can also be used for research animals.^[80] Many high end perfume shops now offer coffee beans to refresh the receptors between perfume tests.

Over 1,000 chemicals have been reported in roasted coffee; more than half of those tested (19/28) are rodent carcinogens.^[81] Coffee's negative health effects are often blamed on its caffeine content. Research suggests that drinking caffeinated coffee can cause a temporary increase in the stiffening of arterial walls.^[82] Coffee is no longer thought to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.^[83] Some studies suggest that it may have a mixed effect on short-term memory, by improving it when the information to be recalled is related to the current train of thought but making it more difficult to recall unrelated information.^[84] About 10% of people with a moderate daily intake (235 mg per day) reported increased depression and anxiety when caffeine was withdrawn,^[85] and about 15% of the general population report having stopped caffeine use completely, citing concern about health and unpleasant side effects.^[86]

Caffeine content

Caffeine molecule

Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single serving can vary greatly. On average, a single cup of coffee (about 200 milliliters) or a single shot of espresso (about 30 mL) can be expected to contain the following amounts of caffeine:^{[87][88][89][90]}

• Drip coffee: 115–175 mg (560–850 mg/L)
• Espresso: 60 mg (2000 mg/L)
• Brewed/Pressed: 80–135 mg (390–650 mg/L)
• Instant: 65–100 mg (310–480 mg/L)
• Decaf, brewed: 3–4 mg
• Decaf, instant: 2–3 mg

See also

• Coffee substitute
• Chicory root, occasionally used as a natural coffee additive.

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70. ^ "Caffeine (Systemic)". MedlinePlus. 2000-05-25. Archived from the original on 2007-02-23. http://web.archive.org/web/20070223063601/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202105.html. Retrieved on 2006-08-12. 
71. ^ ^{a b} "Caffeine, Breast Cancer Link Minimal". http://www.webmd.com/breast-cancer/news/20081013/caffeine-breast-cancer-link-minimal. 
72. ^ Klatsky, Arthur L.; Morton, C.; Udaltsova, N.; Friedman, D. (2006). "Coffee, Cirrhosis, and Transaminase Enzymes". Archives of Internal Medicine 166 (11): 1190–1195. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.11.1190. PMID 16772246. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/166/11/1190. Retrieved on 2008-02-23. 
73. ^ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090114200005.htm
74. ^ "Causes of Heartburn - Causes of Acid Reflux - Heartburn Causes - Acid Reflux Causes". http://heartburn.about.com/cs/causes/a/heartburncauses.htm. 
75. ^ Pereira, Mark A.; Parker, D.; Folsom, A.R. (2006). "Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: an 11-year prospective study of 28 812 postmenopausal women.". Archives of Internal Medicine 166 (12): 1311–1316. PMID 16801515. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/166/12/1311. Retrieved on 2008-02-23. 
76. ^ Bakalar, Nicholas (2006-08-15). "Coffee as a Health Drink? Studies Find Some Benefits". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/15/health/nutrition/15coff.html?ex=1313294400&en=d420f19ee1c77365&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss. Retrieved on 2007-07-28. 
77. ^ Zivkovic, R.; Zivkovic, R. (2000). "Coffee and health in theelderly". Acta Medica Croatica 54 (1): 33-6. PMID 10914439. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cmedm&AN=10914439&site=ehost-live. Retrieved on 2009-05-14. 
78. ^ Muñoz LM, Lönnerdal B, Keen CL, Dewey KG (September 1988). "Coffee consumption as a factor in iron deficiency anemia among pregnant women and their infants in Costa Rica". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 48 (3): 645–51. PMID 3414579. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3414579. 
79. ^ Dewey KG, Romero-Abal ME, Quan de Serrano J, et al. (July 1997). "Effects of discontinuing coffee intake on iron status of iron-deficient Guatemalan toddlers: a randomized intervention study". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66 (1): 168–76. PMID 9209186. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9209186. 
80. ^ Dorri, Yaser; Sabeghi Maryam, Kurien BT (2007). "Awaken olfactory receptors of humans and experimental animals by coffee odourants to induce appetite". Med Hypotheses 69 (3): 508–9. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2006.12.048. PMID 17331659. 
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82. ^ Mahmud, A.; Feely, J. (2001). "Acute Effect of Caffeine on Arterial Stiffness and Aortic Pressure Waveform". Hypertension 38 (2): 227–231. PMID 11509481. http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/38/2/227. Retrieved on 2008-02-23. 
83. ^ Wu JN, Ho SC, Zhou C, et al. (August 2008). "Coffee consumption and risk of coronary heart diseases: A meta-analysis of 21 prospective cohort studies". Int. J. Cardiol.. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.06.051. PMID 18707777. 
84. ^ BBC News; Lesk, Valerie (2004-07-20). "A coffee can make you forgetful". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3909085.stm. Retrieved on 2008-02-23. 
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86. ^ Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (2003). "Use and Common Sources of Caffeine". Information about Caffeine Dependence. http://www.caffeinedependence.org/caffeine_dependence.html#sources. Retrieved on 2008-02-23. 
87. ^ Coffee and Caffeine's Frequently Asked Questions from the alt.drugs.caffeine, alt.coffee, rec.food.drink.coffee Newsgroups, January 7, 1998
88. ^ Bunker, M. L.; McWilliams, M. (January 1979). "Caffeine content of common beverages". J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 74: 28–32. 
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90. ^ http://www.celestialseasonings.com/products/caffeine.html/authentic-green-tea Caffeine content of various drinks

Bibliography

• Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 1435850661, 9781435850668. 
• Metcalf, Allan A. (1999). The World in So Many Words. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395959209. 

External links

Find more about Coffee on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

• Coffee and caffeine health information — A collection of peer-reviewed and journal-published studies on coffee health benefits is evaluated, cited, and summarized.
• Benjamin Joffe-Walt and Oliver Burkeman, The Guardian, 16 September 2005, "Coffee trail" — from the Ethiopian village of Choche to a London coffee shop.
• Coffee on a Grande Scale — Article about the biology, chemistry, and physics of coffee production.
• This is Coffee — Short tribute to coffee in the form of a documentary film (1961), made by the Coffee Brewing Institute. The movie includes some dos and don'ts of making "the perfect cup of coffee" and an overview of different ways to enjoy coffee throughout the world.
• An Illustrated Coffee Guide — Side-by-side diagrams of a few common espresso drinks.
• F. Engelmann, M.E. Dulloo, C. Astorga, S. Dussert and F. Anthony (2007). Complementary strategies for ex situ conservation of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) genetic resources. A case study in CATIE, Costa Rica. Topical reviews in Agricultural Biodiversity. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=1244. 
• Descriptors for Coffee (Coffea spp. and Psilanthus spp.)
• Italian Espresso National Institute
• International Institute of Coffee Tasters
• Coffee Taster, the free newsletter of the International Institute of Coffee Tasters, featuring articles on the quality of espresso, chemical and sensory analysis, market trends.
• Geography of Coffee

v • d • e Coffee Production by country Colombia · Costa Rica · Ecuador · El Salvador · Guatemala · Haiti · India · Indonesia · Jamaica · Kenya · The Philippines  · Vietnam Coffee topics History of coffee · Economics of coffee · Coffee and health · Coffee and the environment Species and varieties List of varieties · Coffea arabica: Kenya AA, Kona, Jamaican Blue Mountain · Coffea canephora (Coffea robusta): Kopi Luwak · Coffea liberica: Kape Barako · Single-origin Major chemicals in coffee Caffeine · Cafestol · Caffeic acid Coffee processing Coffee roasting · Home roasting coffee · Corretto · Decaffeination Coffee preparation Coffeemaker · Coffee percolator · Espresso (lungo, ristretto) · Espresso machine · Drip brew · French press · Turkish coffee · Instant coffee · Chemex · Moka pot · AeroPress · Presso · Knockbox Popular coffee beverages Affogato · Americano/Long black · Café au lait/Café con leche · Caffè corretto/Liqueur coffee · Cafe mocha · Cà phê sữa đá · Cappuccino · Coffee milk · Cortado · Espresso · Ristretto · Flat white · Frappuccino · Greek frappé coffee · Iced coffee · Indian filter coffee · Irish coffee · Latte · Macchiato (espresso, latte) · Red eye Coffee substitutes Dandelion coffee · Caro · Barley tea · Postum · Roasted grain beverage · Barleycup Coffee and lifestyle Coffee culture · Coffee ceremony · Coffeehouse · List of coffeehouse chains · Coffee Palace · Barista · Caffè · Café · Kopi tiam · Viennese café · Caffè sospeso · Coffee cupping · Coffee break/Fika

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - kaffe

idioms:

• coffee bar    kaffebar
• coffee break    kaffepause
• coffee house    cafe
• coffee mill    kaffemølle
• coffee morning    formiddagskaffemøde
• coffee pot    kaffekande
• coffee shop    cafeteria, kaffebar
• coffee table    sofabord
• coffee-table book    pragtbind lagt på sofabord

Nederlands (Dutch)
(kopje) koffie, koffieplant/-boon, koffiekleur(ig)

Français (French)
n. - café

idioms:

• coffee bar    bar-café, café
• coffee break    pause-café
• coffee house    café
• coffee mill    moulin à café
• coffee morning    réunion entre amies pour boire le café et discuter
• coffee pot    cafetière
• coffee shop    café, brûlerie
• coffee table    table basse
• coffee-table book    beau livre (sorti en grand format)

Deutsch (German)
n. - Kaffee

idioms:

• coffee bar    Café
• coffee break    Kaffeepause
• coffee house    Kaffeehaus
• coffee mill    Kaffeemühle
• coffee morning    Morgenkaffee (als Wohltätigkeitsveranstaltung)
• coffee pot    Kaffeekanne
• coffee shop    Café, Kaffeegeschäft
• coffee table    Couchtisch
• coffee-table book    (Luxus)bildband

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - καφές, (φυτολ.) καφέα, καφεόδενδρο

idioms:

• coffee bar    καφέ μπαρ
• coffee break    διάλειμμα εργασίας (για καφέ)
• coffee house    καφενείο
• coffee mill    μύλος (άλεσης) του καφέ
• coffee morning    φιλανθρωπική συνάντηση κατά την οποία σερβίρεται καφές
• coffee pot    δοχείο σερβιρίσματος του καφέ, καφετιέρα
• coffee shop    καφετερία
• coffee table    χαμηλό τραπεζάκι
• coffee-table book    εικονογραφημένο πολυτελές βιβλίο

Italiano (Italian)
caffè

idioms:

• coffee bar    banco del caffè
• coffee break    sosta del caffè
• coffee house    caffè
• coffee morning    mattinata di beneficenza
• coffee pot    caffettiera
• coffee shop    caffè
• coffee table    tavolino da salotto
• coffee-table book    libro illustrato
• instant coffee    caffè solubile

Português (Portuguese)
n. - café (m) (Bot.), cafeeiro (m) (Bot.)

idioms:

• coffee bar    café (m)
• coffee break    hora (f) do café (coloq.)
• coffee house    café (m)
• coffee mill    moedor (m) de café
• coffee morning    reunião matutina de caridade
• coffee pot    cafeteira (f)
• coffee shop    café (m)
• coffee table    mesinha (f) de centro
• coffee-table book    livro (m) de mesa de centro
• instant coffee    café (m) solúvel

Русский (Russian)
кофе

idioms:

• coffee bar    буфет
• coffee break    кратковременный перерыв
• coffee house    кафе
• coffee mill    кофемолка
• coffee morning    дружеская встреча за чашкой кофе
• coffee pot    кофейник
• coffee shop    кафе, буфет
• coffee table    низкий столик
• coffee table    низкий столик
• coffee-table book    роскошно изданная книга
• instant coffee    растворимый кофе

Español (Spanish)
n. - café

idioms:

• coffee bar    cafetería
• coffee break    pausa del café
• coffee house    café, cafetería
• coffee mill    molinillo de café
• coffee morning    reunión benéfica que tiene lugar por la mañana
• coffee pot    cafetera
• coffee shop    café, cafetería
• coffee table    mesita baja, mesa de centro
• coffee-table book    libro lujoso, ilustrado, para adornar

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - kaffe

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
咖啡, 咖啡色

idioms:

• coffee bar    咖啡馆
• coffee break    喝咖啡的休息时间
• coffee house    咖啡厅
• coffee mill    磨咖啡机
• coffee morning    咖啡早茶会
• coffee pot    咖啡壶
• coffee shop    咖啡店
• coffee table    矮茶几
• coffee-table book    茶几上的书籍

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 咖啡, 咖啡色

idioms:

• coffee bar    咖啡館
• coffee break    喝咖啡的休息時間
• coffee house    咖啡廳
• coffee mill    磨咖啡機
• coffee morning    咖啡早茶會
• coffee pot    咖啡壺
• coffee shop    咖啡店
• coffee table    矮茶几
• coffee-table book    茶几上的書籍

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 커피, 커피 딸린 경양식, 커피색

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - コーヒー, コーヒーノキ, コーヒー豆

idioms:

• coffee bar    軽食堂
• coffee break    お茶の時間, コーヒーブレーク
• coffee house    コーヒーハウス
• coffee mill    コーヒーひき
• coffee morning    朝のコーヒーパーティ
• coffee pot    コーヒーポット
• coffee shop    コーヒーショップ, 喫茶軽食の店, コーヒー豆を売る店
• coffee table    ティーテーブル

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) قهوة, بن‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮קפה, ספל קפה‬

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