cranberry

1. A mat-forming, evergreen shrub (Vaccinium macrocarpum) of eastern North America, having pink flowers and tart, red, edible berries.
2. The berries of this plant, used in sauces, jellies, relishes, and beverages.
3. Any of several similar or related plants, especially Vaccinium oxycoccos.

[Partial translation of Low German Kraanbere : Kraan, crane (from Middle Low German kran) + bere, berry.]

Background

The cranberry is a slender, trailing native North American shrub (Vaccinium macro-carpon) that grows in moist, sandy soil. The fruit berry is small, red, quite tart, and high in vitamin C. The berries are used either fresh or in processed foods such as juices, jams, and jellies. Vines are planted in sandy, peat-rich soil that is acidic and often flooded with water for more efficient harvesting. Cranberries grow wild in the northern climes of North America. The cranberry is one of only three fruits native to North America, the blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium and V. corymbosum) and the Concord grape (Vitaceae lubrusca) being the other two. There are about 1,200 cranberry growers in North America and cultivation occurs only in Massachusetts, Wisconsin, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington State. Today, at least 200 billion cranberries are harvested each year and the annual sales exceed $1.5 billion dollars. Of that, Ocean Spray Cranberry Growers Cooperative markets 90% of the annual yield in the United States.

History

Because cranberries are an indigenous fruit, the Native Americans used them in a number of ways—fresh, ground, and mashed and baked with cornmeal. They mixed dried cranberries with dried meats and melted fat to make pemmican—a survival food for winter. Cranberry poultices, medicinal teas, and dyes were also used. European settlers thought the flower of the cranberry vine resembled the crane's head—hence the name cranberry—and used them extensively by 1700. Sailors used them to stave off scurvy because of their high vitamin C content.

Commercial cranberry production began in Cape Cod in 1815 and early commercial producers picked cranberries by hand. Cultivated throughout the nineteenth century in the East as well as the Midwest, individual growers often devised their own innovative machinery to meet harvesting needs. Nearly all attempted to address the problem of laborious picking. Individuals rigged up suction pickers that worked like vacuum cleaners, motorized pickers, homemade weed whackers, and hand scoops for pulling cranberries out of the water during wet harvesting. Standardized water reels and dry-pickers are now commercially available and greatly increase efficiency.

Raw Materials

The raw material needs are modest. The grower requires vines, which often flourish without abating for over 75 years (many are a century old). The land must be peat-rich, sandy, and acidic The beds must be situated near water that can be used to flood the cranberry marshes. No additives are mixed with fresh cranberries prior to packaging.

Processing Cranberries

Preparing the cranberry beds

• Cranberrry cultivation begins with the preparation of individual cranberry beds. Cranberries are not planted in bogs or grown underwater. Cranberries are grown on dry land that is flooded at various points during cultivation generally for ease of harvesting (and sometimes to protect the crop from frost). One cranberry bed can take up few acres of land, a grower may have many beds in close proximity. The top layer of soil is sheared off and used to build earthwork dikes around the perimeter of each bed. Drainage ditches and canals are also constructed in order to manage and contain the water. The cranberry bed is leveled with laser-guided equipment.

Planting

• Cranberries are grown on vines. New plantings are developed from vine cuttings taken from well-established beds. In the spring cuttings are spread over the prepared soil bed and embedded into the dirt with a dull planting disk. By the end of summer, the vines have rooted. It takes three to five years for these cuttings to begin producing quantities of fruit for commercial processing, but once established, they will produce high-quality fruit for decades.

Caring for the crop

• The cranberry vine begins to bloom in early June. Cranberry vines blossom and flowers begin to open around mid-June. By the end of the month, all of the flowers are in full bloom. The vines must be pollinated by honeybees so they reach their full productivity. In order to ensure pollination, growers bring in about one to two beehives per acre. The result is a concentration of approximately nine million bees in a 100 acre conglomeration of beds. The honeybees continue to pollinate the flowers until early July, when blooming is complete.
• Small berries appear in July and grow larger until they are harvested in October. During the growing season the vines, are irrigated and fertilized. Pest and weed populations are controlled in order to maximize fruit production.

  It is critical to protect the cranberry vines from frost. Temperature alarm systems are installed to alert the growers to low temperatures. When frost is impending, the irrigation system shoots sprays of water over the plants. Heat is released from the water before it freezes thus protecting the plants from damage.

Dry harvesting

Dry harvesting is the best method for obtaining a firm, fresh bagged cranberry.

• In dry harvesting, cranberry growers use a mechanical picker that resembles a reel lawn mower. Cranberry cultivators train the vines so that the fruit all lies in one direction, allowing the picker's metal teeth to comb the berries off the vine. Berries are placed onto a bucket conveyor that carries them to a burlap sack in the back of the machine. When the sack is full it is lifted off the conveyor and another is put in its place.
• The sacks are emptied onto metal screens that are used to separate the berries from leaves and debris. Next, the berries are crated. When the crates are stacked three high, they are bundled together with a nylon belt. Many cranberry growers use helicopters to airlift crates to nearby flatbed trucks. Since harvesting occurs in the field, the use of helicopters eliminates the potential crushing of the cranberry vines.
• Dry berries are taken to the plant to be sorted. Machines sort out unsuitable berries by bouncing them over a 1 in (2.54 cm) high "bounce board." Firm, round berries bounce over the board, while rotten or bruised berries remain trapped and are discarded. Berries that clear the bounce boards are carried away by conveyor belts and are packaged by machines that check weight and package accordingly.

Wet harvesting

Wet harvesting is used when the final product will be juices, jams, and jellied sauces.

• Wet harvesting is a quicker processing method than dry harvesting. Ninety-five percent of a crop can be wet harvested in 60% of the time it takes to dry harvest. However, since wet harvested berries are more perishable than dry harvested berries, they are only used for processed cranberry foods. Flooding occurs the night before harvesting is to begin. The beds are flooded with 18 in (45.72 cm) of water. The next day, a machine called a water reel (nicknamed egg beaters) is driven through the water, its paddles churning up the water. The ripe cranberries are agitated just enough to separated from the vine and float to the surface of the water. The floating berries are corralled together with an inflatable boom. A large pipe is placed just beneath the surface of the water in the center of the aggregation of gathered, floating cranberries. The pipe sucks up the berries (along with impurities in the water such as leaves, water, twigs) into a metal box called a hopper.
• The hopper separates the debris from the berries, pumps the water back into the bog, and pumps the berries into a trail truck. The loading of cleaned berries continues until thousands of pounds of berries are loaded into the truck and taken to the plant for processed cranberry foods.

After harvest

• From late December through March, the cranberry beds are flooded with water until they are completely frozen. The ice forms a protective layer around the plants, protecting them from dehydration and the weather. The plants remain dormant until the following spring.
• Every four years, a layer of sand is added to the top of the frozen beds. As the ice begins to melt, the sand falls to the ground, creating a more established root system and promoting growth.
• The beds are also periodically mowed to encourage shrub health and growth. Mowing occurs in spring and the plants do not produce fruit the year of a mowing.

Quality Control

Quality control of agricultural products such as cranberries includes a wide variety of activities not always associated with what we might generally consider quality control. However, first and foremost, it is important to propagate new vines from old vines that have produced luscious, full, large berries. Second, the vines must be planted in soil that is truly sandy and full of rich peat to ensure necessary nutrients are provided. Then, the beds must be carefully constructed so that the earthworks and dikes adequately control the water flooding. Also, frost warning equipment which alerts that grower as temperatures drop dangerously low must be heeded and sprinkling equipment put into action or the entire crop is at risk.

As with other crops, pests are always a factor in quality control. The grower must be vigilant about checking for pests such as cranberry tipworm or cranberry fruitworm that can ruin a crop if left unchecked (the fruitworm sucks out the meaty centers of berries, fills it full of its excrement and then encases the plants or vines in its silky web). Ultraviolet light traps can be used to attract the fruitworm and then spray the concentration of bugs with a USDA approved insecticide. In fact, insecticides are used for many different bugs but the industry tries to keep their use to a minimum. Fruit fungi and diseases are also issues for cultivators. The industry uses chemicals and carefully monitors weeds, over fertilization, and handling in order to reduce these diseases.

Finally, the machinery used in the processing of cranberries is constructed so as not to bruise or damage the berries. While these are fairly firm berries, they can be bruised if overhandled.

Byproducts/Waste

While some cranberry growers do not use pesticides on their crops most do use chemicals to keep pests away from the berries. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) maintains strict controls on acceptable pesticides that may be used on fresh fruit and the growers must heed these guidelines. Washing and cleaning the fruit minimizes chemical residue remaining on the harvested fruit. Because the cranberry is harvested in or near water and some of the chemicals specifically formulated to fight diseases and berry blight are moderately toxic to fish, the cultivators must carefully monitor the effects of chemicals on the local fish population.

The Future

Cranberry products are very popular and supply never has been equal to the demand. Since there are only 1,200 growers in North America and appropriate land available for cranberry crops is limited because of environmental factors such as wetland protection and limited water access, supply will not grow significantly. Presently, 90% of cranberry consumption occurs in North America. That demand will keep pricing competitive.

Cranberry juice has been an effective home treatment for urinary tract infections for some time and new studies suggest that cranberries are rich in cancer-fighting antioxidants.

Where to Learn More

Books

Jaspersohn, William. Cranberries. Boston: HoughtonMifflin,1991.

Periodicals

"Berry Good for You." The University of California, Berkeley Wellness Letter (February 1999): 2.

Mottau, Gary. "Water Berries." Horticulture (October 1984): 34.

Other

Cranberries in New Jersey. http://www.burlco.lib.nu.us/.

Cranberry cultivation in Massachusetts. http://omega.cc.umb.edu/~conne/marsha/ccintro.html.

Maine Cranberry Growers. http://www.nemaine.com/.

Ocean Spray. http://www.oceanspray.com/.

Oregon State University. http://osu.orst.edu/.

Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers Association. http://wiscran.org/.

[Article by: Nancy EV Bryk]

The large-fruited American cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, a member of the heath family, Ericaceae, is a native plant of open, acid peat bogs in northeastern North America. Well-tended cranberry bogs continue to produce annual crops for a century or more without replanting. Selections from the wild have been cultivated since the early 19th century. It is an evergreen perennial vine producing runners and upright branches with conspicuous terminal flower buds.

Commercial cranberry growing is confined to Massachusetts, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Washington, and Oregon and to several provinces in Canada. Most of the fruit destined for processing is harvested in flood waters, either by machines which pick and deliver the fruit into towed plastic boats or by water reels which detach the berries to float and be driven by wind to shore where they are elevated into bulk trucks. Berries for juice manufacture are usually vine-ripened and deep-frozen for a month or more prior to thawing and extraction.

Good-quality fresh cranberries can be stored for several months, refrigerated, with very little loss to decay. Good-quality cranberries can be kept in deep-freeze storage for several years with only minor moisture loss. Frozen berries on thawing are soft and juicy, unlike the firm fresh berry, and must be utilized promptly.

The special requirements of the cranberry plant for low fertility, acid soil, and winter protection make it a poor choice for home garden cultivation.

The fleshy, acid fruit of Vaccinium oxycoccus or V. macrocarpon, resembling a cherry; commonly used to make cranberry sauce (a traditional accompaniment to turkey) and for the preparation of juice. An 80-g portion is a source of vitamin C and copper; provides 3.2 g of dietary fibre; supplies 15 kcal (60 kJ). A 300-mL portion of juice is a rich source of vitamin C and copper; a good source of iron; supplies 150 kcal (630 kJ).

These shiny scarlet berries are grown in huge, sandy bogs on low, trailing vines. They're also called bounceberries, because ripe ones bounce, and craneberries, after the shape of the shrub's pale pink blossoms, which resemble the heads of the cranes often seen wading through the cranberry bogs. Cranberries grow wild in northern Europe and in the northern climes of North America, where they are also extensively cultivated-mainly in Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Washington and Oregon. Harvested between Labor Day and Halloween, the peak market period for cranberries is from October through December. They're usually packaged in 12-ounce plastic bags. Any cranberries that are discolored or shriveled should be discarded. Cranberries can be refrigerated, tightly wrapped, for at least 2 months or frozen up to a year. Besides the traditional cranberry sauce, this fruit also makes delicious chutneys, pies, cobblers and other desserts. Because of their extreme tartness, cranberries are best combined with other fruits, such as apples or dried apricots. Canned cranberry sauce-jelled and whole-berry-is available year-round, as are frozen cranberries in some markets. Sweetened dried cranberries, which can be used like raisins in baked goods or as snacks, are also available in many supermarkets. Fresh cranberries are very high in vitamin C.

The Indians would have referred to the berries as sassamanesh if they were served at the first Thanksgiving in 1621. The English would have known them as marsh-whorts, fen-whorts, fen-berries, marsh-berries, or moss-berries. But strangely enough, in 1647 we find a sermon by Massachusetts minister John Eliot, "Apostle to the Indians," asking this about the wonders of nature: "Why are Strawberries sweet and Cranberries sowre?"

We will leave Eliot's question to the theologians and botanists and instead pursue the solution to a linguistic mystery: Why did the English-speaking residents of New England adopt this name cranberry?

Perhaps the Dutch of New Amsterdam taught them to savor it. Cranberry is related to German kranbeere and Low German or Dutch kronbere or kranebere. In those languages, as in English, the word means "crane-berry," referring to the bird known as the crane. What does the crane have to do with the berry? Some say the stem on which the berry grows has the shape of a crane; others say the European bogs harbored cranes whose diet included these crane-berries.

Then as now, cranberries were a favored food. John Josselyn, visiting from England in 1663, reported that "The Indians and English use them much, boyling them with Sugar for Sauce to eat with their Meat, and it is a delicate sauce."

The term cranberry sauce shows up a century later in the diary of John Adams in the entry for April 8, 1767. After mentioning that he "found a fine Wild Goose on the Spit and Cramberries stewing in the Skillet for Dinner" at a certain Dr. Tuft's, he adds that Tufts invited him "to dine upon wild Goose and Cramberry Sause."

Indians also taught the colonists to make pemmican. This combination of dried meat, melted animal fat, and cranberries was a nutritious food with a long shelf life.

Description

The cranberry plant, a familiar source of berries used in juices and relishes in the United States, has been in existence since the Iron Age. The Romans were the first to recognize its medicinal uses by the local inhabitants of what is now England. Herbalist Henry Lyte documented its healing effects in 1578. Since then, the cranberry plant has been a popular folk remedy for a variety of illnesses, including gout, rheumatism, diarrhea, constipation, scurvy, fevers, skin infections and other skin problems such as eczema. Cranberries are well known as a treatment for such women's health problems as cystitis, and urinary and genital infections.

Currently, there are approximately 150 species of cranberry. The best known and most popular is the American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon), because of the size and juiciness of its fruit. It is a member of the Heath (Ericaceae) family. Vaccinium macrocarpon is a low-lying fruit plant grown commercially in North America. The shrub bears beautiful pink flowers that grow into rounded reddish-black berries. The berries are harvested early in the fall, and made into juices, jellies, or relishes. Juice made from cranberries is a popular, tart fruit drink. The United States presently produces about 98% of the world's cranberries.

Scientists have learned that the chemical composition of cranberries includes many substances that promote healing, such as:

• Proanthocyanidins and anthocyanins. These bioflavenoids make up the pigment of the leaves, and produce the color of the berries. More importantly, proanthocyanidins are responsible for cranberry's best-known medicinal effect, preventing bladder and urinary tract infections by inhibiting bacterial colonization. They may also help relieve diarrheal symptoms.
• Organic acids, including quinic, malic, and citric acids. Quinic acid is considered the most important among these organic acids. These compounds, which are responsible for the sour taste of cranberries, acidify the urine and prevent kidney stones.
• Vitamins and minerals. Cranberries are rich sources of vitamins including vitamin A, carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C. They also contain many essential minerals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, sulfur, iron, and iodide. These vitamins and minerals are strong antioxidants that enable cranberries to help protect the body against such infections as colds or influenza. Because of their high vitamin C content, cranberries were used in the past to prevent a vitamin C deficiency known as scurvy.
• Fiber. Like many other fruits, cranberries are a good source of fiber.

General Use

Prevention and Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are extremely common in women, affecting one of every two females during their lifetime. Men have urinary infections as well, but less frequently than women. A woman contracts a urinary tract infection when bacteria gets into the relatively short female urethra and moves up to the bladder. Once in the bladder, the bacteria grow and spread to other parts of the urinary tract. If left untreated, UTIs can cause serious kidney infections that may require hospitalization. The disease is relatively easy to treat, but tends to recur.

In the United States, urinary tract infections result in more than five million medical treatment visits each year. The most frequently prescribed treatment for urinary tract infections is antibiotics. There are also simple self-protective measures that women can take against UTIs. These include:

• Drinking a lot of fluid, which increases the amount of urine produced and helps to flush out infectious microorganisms.
• Emptying the bladder immediately after having intercourse.
• Using oral contraceptives rather than a diaphragm, which tends to put pressure on or irritate the urethra.
• Drinking cranberry juice as a preventive measure for women.

As early as the 1840s, German physicians observed that cranberry juice prevented urinary tract infections. This effect was attributed to the cranberry's high acidity.

Recent research has confirmed the effectiveness of cranberries in preventing UTIs. Two studies in the mid-1990s, one involving women 65 years or older and the other with younger women between the ages of 18 and 45, showed that cranberries are effective in preventing bladder infections. Regardless of age, women can significantly reduce their risk of urinary tract infections by consuming 10 ounces of cranberry juice daily. Scientists, however, have learned that the effectiveness of cranberry juice is not related to its acidity, as was previously believed. Researchers found that the cranberry's antibacterial properties come from its proanthocyanidins (or condensed tannins). Proanthocyanidins inhibit chia coli bacteria from attaching to the inside walls of the bladder, allowing them to be easily flushed out with urine before they multiply and cause infections.

A careful review of all studies involving the cranberry's role in preventing UTIs concluded that cranberry juice or concentrate is beneficial in preventing infections in women, but its benefits have not been proven in children or males. The reviewers also noted that many women did not complete the full one-year study period.

Prevention of Kidney Stones

Kidney stones are most often caused by high levels of ionized calcium (as in calcium salts) in the urine. Cranberries can help prevent this condition because they are rich in quinic acid, which increases the acidity of the urine. As a result, the levels of ionized calcium in the urine are lowered.

A person needs to drink 16 ounces of unsweetened cranberry juice (two glasses) daily to effectively prevent kidney stones. Cranberry capsules or powdered concentrates are also available. It is important not to consume too much cranberry, because very high acidity in the urine actually increases the risk of kidney stones. A person would need to drink at least one liter of cranberry juice per day for a prolonged period of time for this to occur.

Prevention of Colds and Influenza

A daily glass of cranberry juice is a good source of vitamin C and antioxidants. These nutrients help support the body's immune function and prevent cancer as well as such common infections as colds or influenza.

Other Uses

Cranberries may serve as a digestive aid. Because of their high acidity, they help to digest fatty foods, and to increase the appetite.

Some early laboratory studies suggest that cranberries may help to prevent gingivitis (gum disease) and coronary (heart) disease. These studies have not yet been confirmed by clinical research in humans.

Cranberry has been a folk remedy for diarrhea. Proponents of this use suggest that the proanthocyanidins in cranberries, in addition to having antibacterial activity, also act as astringents. They cause proteins to clump together to form rigid cakes that prevent bacteria from using the proteins for food. However, the effectiveness of cranberries in the treatment of diarrhea remains unproven.

Various cranberry preparations have also been used to treat skin disorders such as acne, dermatitis, and psoriasis ; bed-wetting; burns and wounds ; and stress and depression. There is currently insufficient scientific evidence to support these uses.

A recent study suggests that cranberry juice may inhibit the formation of dental plaque by preventing bacteria from collecting (coaggregating) on the tooth film formed by proteins in the saliva. These preliminary findings await further testing.

Preparations

There are many types of cranberry preparations available, partly because cranberry products are among the top 10 best sellers in the health food market. They include:

• Cranberry juice. For prevention of urinary tract infections and kidney stones, recommended products include those containing pure cranberry juice rather than mixtures that are only 25–27% cranberry juice. Four to six ounces of unadulterated cranberry juice daily is recommended for the prevention of UTIs. Some herbalists advocate the use of cranberry for treatment of mild urinary tract infections; dosages of 10–32 oz (0.3–1 kg) daily have been used. Cranberry juice may not be effective, however, for established infections. It should be taken only as a complementary measure rather than as an alternative to antibiotics in the treatment of active UTIs. If a woman experiences such symptoms of cystitis as chills, fever, fatigue, and burning pain during urination, she should contact her doctor immediately for antibiotic treatment.
• Dried cranberry powder capsules (475–500 mg). Because most commercial cranberry juice contains high levels of sugar, these capsules may be a better alternative for diabetic patients or dieters. Each capsule equals 0.5 ounces of cranberry juice. Nine to 15 capsules daily is the recommended dosage for the prevention of urinary tract infections.
• Powdered concentrates. These forms of cranberry are available in different strengths. Women should follow the dosages recommended by manufacturers.
• Fresh or dried cranberries. Dried untreated cranberries can be found in health food stores. They can be stored up to a year. Cranberries are also available fresh or frozen in most grocery stores or supermarkets. Because of their tartness, most people may find it difficult to consume them in sufficient quantity to obtain their therapeutic benefits.
• Cranberry herbal teas. These products can be obtained from health food stores or via the Internet.

Precautions

Cranberries should be used with care or modification in patients with certain diseases, including:

• Active urinary tract infections. Cranberries should not be substituted for antibiotic treatment, but used only as a supplementary therapy.
• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Large quantities of cranberry juice or capsules may cause diarrhea in IBS patients.
• Diabetes. Patients with diabetes should use sugar-free cranberry juice, or take capsules or powdered concentrates.

Side Effects

The most common side effects associated with excessive cranberry consumption are diarrhea and an increased risk of developing kidney stones.

Regular cranberry consumption by women trying to prevent UTIs may result in vulvovaginal candidiasis. Alterations in the normal vaginal bacteria may lead to increased fungal growth.

Interactions

There are no identified drug interactions associated with cranberry consumption.

Resources

Books

Davies, Jill Rosemary. Healing Herbs—In a Nutshell: CRAN BERRY. Boston: Element Books, Inc., 2000.

Fetrow, Charles W., and Juan R. Avila. The Complete Guide to Herbal Medicines. Springhouse, PA: Springhouse Corporation, 2000.

McCaleb, Robert, Evelyn Leigh, and Krista Morien. The Encyclopedia of Popular Herbs: Your Complete Guide to the Leading Medicinal Plants. Rocklin, CA: Prima Health, 2000.

Murray, Michael, and Joseph Pizzorno. Encyclopedia of Natural Medicine. Rocklin, CA: Prima Health, 1998.

Periodicals

Avorn J., M. Monane, J.H. Gurwitz, et al. "Reduction of Bacteriuria and Pyuria after Ingestion of Cranberry Juice." Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) 271 (1994): 751-4.

Jepson R., L. Mihaljevic, and J. Craig. "Cranberries for preventing urinary tract infection."Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2004).

Patel, D.A., B. Gillespie, J.D. Sobel, et al. "Risk factors for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis in women receiving maintenance antifungal therapy: Results of a prospective cohort study."American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology March (2004): 644–53.

Weiss, E.I., A. Kozlovsky, D. Steinberg, R., et al. "A high molecular mass cranberry constituent reduces mutans streptococci level in saliva and inhibits in vitro adhesion to hydroxyapatite."FEMS Microbiol Lett (March 2004): 89–92.

Organizations

American Association of Naturopathic Physicians. 601 Valley St., Suite 105, Seattle, WA 98109. (206) 298-0126. Fax: (206) 298-0129. .

American Herbal Products Association. 8484 Georgia Ave., Suite 370, Silver Spring, MD 20910. (301) 588-1174. .

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM). NCCAM Clearinghouse, PO Box 8218, Silver Spring, MD 20907-8218. (888) 644-6226. Fax: (301) 495-4957. .

[Article by: Samuel Uretsky, Pharm.D.]

(click to enlarge)
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) (credit: Walter Chandoha)

Fruit of any of several small creeping or trailing plants of the genus Vaccinium (heath family), related to the blueberry. The small-fruited, or northern, cranberry (V. oxycoccus) is found in marshy land in northern North America and Asia and in northern and central Europe. Its crimson berries, about the size of currants and often spotted, have an acid taste. The American cranberry (V. macrocarpon), found wild in most of the northeastern U.S. and grown extensively in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Wisconsin and near the Pacific coast in Washington and Oregon, is more robust than V. oxycoccus, with larger, pink to very dark red or mottled red-and-white berries. Cranberries are used in drinks, sauces, jellies, and baked goods.

For more information on cranberry, visit Britannica.com.

This article is about a plant species. For the rock band, see The Cranberries. For other uses, see Cranberry (disambiguation).

Cranberry
Cranberry bush with fruit partially submerged
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order: Ericales Family: Ericaceae Genus: Vaccinium Subgenus: Oxycoccos
Species
Vaccinium erythrocarpum Vaccinium macrocarpon Vaccinium microcarpum Vaccinium oxycoccos

Approximate ranges of the cranberries in sect. Oxycoccos: Red: Common Cranberry. Orange: Small Cranberry. Green: American Cranberry.

Cranberries, also known as prunes, are a group of evergreen dwarf shrubs or trailing vines in the genus Vaccinium subgenus Oxycoccos, or in some treatments, in the distinct genus Oxycoccos. They are found in acidic bogs throughout the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere.

Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 m long and 5 to 20 cm in height;^[1] they have slender, wiry stems that are not thickly woody and have small evergreen leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with very distinct reflexed petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by domestic honey bees. The fruit is an epigynous berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially white, but turns a deep red when fully ripe. It is edible, with an acidic taste that can overwhelm its sweetness.

Cranberries are a major commercial crop in certain American states and Canadian provinces (see "Cultivation and Uses" below). Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries (e.g. Craisins), with the remainder sold fresh to consumers. Cranberry sauce is regarded an indispensable part of traditional American and Canadian Thanksgiving menus and European winter festivals.

Since the early 21st century within the global functional food industry, there has been a rapidly growing recognition of cranberries for their consumer product popularity, nutrient content and antioxidant qualities, giving them commercial status as a "superfruit".^[2][3]

Contents 1 Species and description 2 Etymology and history 3 Cultivation and uses 3.1 Geography and bog method 3.2 Cultivation 3.3 Harvesting and food uses 4 Nutrients and antioxidant capacity 5 Health benefits and potential health benefits 5.1 Phytochemicals 5.2 Anti-adhesion properties 5.3 Current and completed clinical trials 5.4 Possible contraindications 6 Marketing and economics 6.1 History 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

Species and description

There are three to four species of cranberry, classified in two sections:

Subgenus Oxycoccos, sect. Oxycoccos

• Vaccinium oxycoccos or Oxycoccos palustris (Common Cranberry or Northern Cranberry) is widespread throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere, including northern Europe, northern Asia and northern North America. It has small 5-10 mm leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stems. The fruit is a small pale pink berry, with a refreshing sharp acidic flavour.
• Vaccinium microcarpum or Oxycoccos microcarpus (Small Cranberry) occurs in northern Europe and northern Asia, and differs from V. oxycoccus in the leaves being more triangular, and the flower stems hairless. Some botanists include it within V. oxycoccos.
• Vaccinium macrocarpon or Oxycoccos macrocarpus (Large cranberry, American Cranberry, Bearberry) native to northeastern North America (eastern Canada, and eastern United States, south to North Carolina at high altitudes). It differs from V. oxycoccus in the leaves being larger, 10-20 mm long, and in its slightly apple-like taste.

Subgenus Oxycoccos, sect. Oxycoccoides

• Vaccinium erythrocarpum or Oxycoccos erythrocarpus (Southern Mountain Cranberry) native to southeastern North America at high altitudes in the southern Appalachian Mountains, and also in eastern Asia.

Vaccinium oxycoccos flowers

Cranberries are related to bilberries, blueberries, and huckleberries, all in Vaccinium subgenus Vaccinium. These differ in having stouter, woodier stems forming taller shrubs, and in the bell-shaped flowers, the petals not being reflexed.

Some plants of the completely unrelated genus Viburnum are sometimes inaccurately called "highbush cranberries" (Viburnum trilobum).

Cranberries are susceptible to false blossom, a harmful but controllable phytoplasma disease common in the eastern production areas of Massachusetts and New Jersey.

Etymology and history

The Cranberry Harvest on the Island of Nantucket, Eastman Johnson, 1880.

The name cranberry derives from "craneberry", first named by early European settlers in America who felt the expanding flower, stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a crane. Another name used in northeastern Canada is mossberry. The traditional English name for Vaccinium oxycoccos, fenberry, originated from plants found growing in fen (marsh) lands.

In North America, Native Americans were the first to use cranberries as food. Native Americans used cranberries in a variety of foods, especially for pemmican, wound medicine and dye. Calling the red berries Sassamanash, natives may have introduced cranberries to starving English settlers in Massachusetts who incorporated the berries into traditional Thanksgiving feasts. American Revolutionary War veteran Henry Hall is credited as first to farm cranberries in the Cape Cod town of Dennis around 1816. In the 1820s cranberries were shipped to Europe. ^[4] Cranberries became popular for wild harvesting in the Nordic countries and Russia. In Scotland, the berries were originally wild-harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done.

Cultivation and uses

Geography and bog method

Cranberry harvest in New Jersey

Cranberries are a major commercial crop in the U.S. states of Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin, as well as in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Quebec. According to the Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Wisconsin is the leading producer of cranberries, with over half of U.S. production. Massachusetts is the second largest U.S. producer, with 28% of total domestic production. A very small production is found in southern Chile, in the Baltic States, and in Eastern Europe.

Historically, cranberry beds were constructed in wetlands. Currently cranberry beds are constructed in upland areas that have a shallow water table. The topsoil is scraped off to form dikes around the bed perimeter. Clean sand is hauled in to a depth of four to eight inches. The surface is laser leveled with a slight crown in the center to facilitate drainage. Beds are frequently drained with socked tile in addition to the perimeter ditch. In addition to making it possible to hold water, the dikes allow equipment to service the beds without driving on the vines. Irrigation equipment is installed in the bed to provide irrigation for vine growth and for spring and autumn frost protection.

Cultivation

Cranberry vines are propagated by moving vines from an established bed. The vines are spread on the surface of the sand of the new bed and pushed into the sand with a blunt disk. The vines are watered frequently during the first few weeks until roots form and new shoots grow. Beds are given frequent light application of nitrogen fertilizer during the first year. The cost of establishment for new cranberry beds is estimated to be about US$70,000 per hectare.

A common misconception about cranberry production is that the beds remain flooded throughout the year. During the growing season cranberry beds are not flooded, but are irrigated regularly to maintain soil moisture. Beds are flooded in the autumn to facilitate harvest and again during the winter to protect against low temperatures. In cold climates like Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and eastern Canada the winter flood typically freezes into ice, while in warmer climates the water remains liquid. When ice forms on the beds, trucks can be driven onto the ice to spread a thin layer of sand that helps to control pests and rejuvenate the vines. Sanding is done every three to five years.

Harvesting and food uses

Cranberries are harvested in the fall when the fruit takes on its distinctive deep red color. This is usually in late September or early October. To harvest cranberries, the beds are flooded with six to eight inches of water above the vines. A harvester is driven through the beds to remove the fruit from the vines. For the past 50 years, water reel type harvesters have been used. Harvested cranberries float in the water and can be corralled into a corner of the bed and conveyed or pumped from the bed. From the farm, cranberries are taken to receiving stations where they are cleaned, sorted, and stored prior to packaging or processing.

Although most cranberries are wet-picked as described above, 5-10% of the US crop is still dry-picked. This entails higher labor costs and lower yield, but dry-picked berries are less bruised and can be sold as fresh fruit instead of having to be immediately frozen or processed. Originally performed with two-handed comb scoops, dry picking is today accomplished by motorized, walk-behind harvesters which must be small enough to traverse beds without damaging the vines.

White cranberry juice drinks are made from regular cranberries that have been harvested after the fruits are mature, but before they have attained their characteristic dark red color. Yields are lower on beds harvested early and the early flooding tends to damage vines, but not severely.

About 95% of cranberries are processed into products such as juice drinks, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries. The remaining 5% is sold fresh to consumers. Cranberries destined for processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station. To allow air movement deterring decay, cranberries for fresh market are stored in shallow bins or boxes with perforated or slatted bottoms. Because harvest occurs in late autumn, cranberries for fresh market are frequently stored in thick walled barns without mechanical refrigeration. Temperatures are regulated by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed.

Usually cranberries as fruit are served as a compote or jelly, often known generically as cranberry sauce. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast turkey meat and are considered by some to be a staple of English Christmas dinners, and the Canadian and US holiday Thanksgiving. The berry is also used in baking (muffins, scones and cakes) but, unlike many other berries, is normally considered too sharp to be eaten unaccompanied.

Fresh cranberries can be frozen at home, and will keep up to nine months; they can be used directly in recipes without thawing.^[5]

Cranberry juice is a major use of cranberries; it is usually either sweetened to reduce its natural severe tartness and make "cranberry juice cocktail" or blended with other fruit juices. Many cocktails, including the Cosmopolitan, are made with cranberry juice.

Cranberry wine is a well known product in some of the cranberry-growing regions of the United States made from either whole cranberries, cranberry juice or cranberry juice concentrate.

Nutrients and antioxidant capacity

Cranberries have moderate levels of vitamin C, dietary fiber and the essential dietary mineral, manganese, as well as a balanced profile of other essential micronutrients.^[6]

By measure of the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity with an ORAC score of 9,584 units per 100 g, cranberry ranks near the top of 277 commonly consumed foods in the United States.^[7]

Nutrients in raw cranberries[8]
Nutrient	Value per 100 grams	% Daily Value
Energy	46 kcal
Fiber, total dietary	4.6 g	15.3%
Sugars, total	4.04 g
Calcium, Ca	8 mg	0.8%
Magnesium, Mg	6 mg	1.9%
Manganese, Mn	0.15 mg	7%
Phosphorus, P	13 mg	1.9%
Potassium, K	85 mg	1.8%
Sodium, Na	2 mg	0.1%
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	13.3 mg	16%
Vitamin A, IU	60 IU	9%
Vitamin K, μg	5.1 μg	6.4%
Carotene, beta	36 μg	ne
Lutein + zeaxanthin	91 μg	ne

ne: Daily Value not established

Health benefits and potential health benefits

Phytochemicals

Cranberries are a source of polyphenol antioxidants, phytochemicals under active research for possible benefits to the cardiovascular system, immune system and as anti-cancer agents.^[9][10]

Cranberry juice contains a chemical component, a high molecular weight non-dializable material (NDM), as noted above, that is able to inhibit and even reverse the formation of plaque by Streptococcus mutans pathogens that cause tooth decay.^[11][12] Cranberry juice components also show efficacy against formation of kidney stones.^[13][14]

Raw cranberries and cranberry juice are abundant food sources of the anthocyanidin flavonoids, cyanidin, peonidin and quercetin.^[15][16] These compounds have an unknown effect on human health, but are powerful against human cancer cells in vitro. Their effect in humans, however, is unproven, showing poor absorption into human cells and rapid elimination from blood.

Since 2002, there has been an increasing focus on the potential role of cranberry polyphenolic constituents in preventing several types of cancer.^{[17][18][19][20][21]} In a 2001 University of Maine study that compared cranberries with twenty other fruits, cranberries had the largest amount of both free and total phenols, with red grapes at a distant second place.^[22] Cranberry tannins have anti-clotting properties and may reduce urinary tract infections and the amount of dental plaque-causing oral bacteria, thus being a prophylaxis for gingivitis.^[23]

Anti-adhesion properties

There is potential benefit of cranberry juice consumption against bacterial infections in the urinary system. Research shows that an effect occurs from a component of the juice inhibiting bacterial attachment to the bladder and urethra.^[24][25][26]

Although promising for anti-bacterial activity, long-term consumption of cranberry juice has only limited evidence for beneficial effects against urinary tract infections in women.^[27] Similar applications have not been successfully proved in other clinical trials of consuming cranberry juice or tablets by people with spinal cord injury associated with bladder catheterization, neurogenic bladder or infrequent urination, any of which may be associated with increased susceptibility to bacterial infections.^[28][29][30]

Current and completed clinical trials

In April 2004, the French government agency AFSSA, which regulates food products in a way similar to the United States Food and Drug Administration, granted approval of cranberry juice as an antibacterial agent for urinary tract health.^[31]

To date, four completed randomized clinical trials have shown evidence for inhibiting bacterial infections in the urinary tract of women by drinking cranberry juice over a 12 month period.^[32]

The US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) also reports three recently completed and four ongoing clinical trials of cranberry juice or capsules (pharmacy).^[33] Six of these human studies are examining antibacterial effects in female urinary tract infections. One evaluates effects of cranberry polyphenols on cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in metabolism. To evaluate the drug interaction potential of cranberry, alprazolam, dextromethorphan and caffeine are being examined. As of January 2008, the results of these trials have not been published.

Possible contraindications

An autumn 2004 caution from the Committee on Safety of Medicines, the UK agency dealing with drug safety, advised patients taking warfarin not to drink cranberry juice after adverse effects (such as increased incidence of bruising) were reported, possibly resulting from the presence of salicylic acid native to polyphenol-rich plants such as the cranberry. However, during 2006-8, several reviews of case reports and pilot studies have failed to confirm this effect, collectively indicating no statistically significant interaction between daily consumption of 250 mL cranberry juice and warfarin in the general population.^[34][35]

Marketing and economics

History

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

Cranberry sales have traditionally been associated with the United States holidays of Thanksgiving and Christmas. Until the 1930s most of the crop was sold fresh.

Cranberry growers have a long history of cooperative marketing. As early as 1904, John Gaynor, a Wisconsin grower, and A.U. Chaney, a fruit broker from Des Moines, Iowa, organized Wisconsin growers into a cooperative called the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company to receive a uniform price from buyers. Growers in New Jersey and Massachusetts were also organized into cooperatives, creating the National Fruit Exchange that marketed fruit under the Eatmor brand. The success of cooperative marketing almost led to its failure. With consistent and high prices, area and production doubled between 1903 and 1917 and prices fell. In 1918, US$54,000 was spent on advertising, leading to US$1 million in increased sales.

With surplus cranberries and changing American households some enterprising growers began canning cranberries that were below-grade for fresh market. Competition between canners was fierce because profits were thin. The Ocean Spray cooperative was established in 1930 through a merger of three primary processing companies: Ocean Spray Preserving company, Makepeace Preserving Co, and Cranberry Products Co. The new company was called Cranberry Canners, Inc. and used the Ocean Spray label on their products. Since the new company represented over 90% of the market, it would have been illegal (cf. antitrust) had attorney John Quarles not found an exemption for agricultural cooperatives. As of 2006, about 65% of the North American industry belongs to the Ocean Spray cooperative. (The percentage may be slightly higher in Canada than in the U.S.)

A turning point for the industry occurred on November 9, 1959 when the secretary of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Arthur S. Flemming announced that some of the 1959 crop was tainted with traces of the herbicide aminotriazole. The market for cranberries collapsed and growers lost millions of dollars.^[36] However, the scare taught the industry that they could not be completely dependent on the holiday market for their products: they had to find year round markets for their fruit. They also had to be exceedingly careful about their use of pesticides.

After the aminotriazole scare, Ocean Spray reorganized and spent substantial sums on product development. New products such as cranberry apple juice blends were introduced, followed by other juice blends.

A Federal Marketing Order that is authorized to synchronize supply and demand was approved in 1962. The order has been renewed and modified slightly in subsequent years, but it has allowed for more stable marketing. The market order has been invoked during six crop years: 1962 (12%), 1963 (5%), 1970 (10%), 1971 (12%), 2000 (15%), and 2001 (35%). Even though supply still slightly exceeds demand, there is little will to invoke the Federal Marketing Order out of the realization that any pullback in supply by U.S. growers would easily be filled by Canadian production.

Prices and production increased steadily during the 1980s and 1990s. Prices peaked at about $65.00 per barrel (29 ¢/kg—A cranberry barrel equals 100 pounds or 45.4 kg.) in 1996 then fell to $18.00 per barrel (8.2 ¢/kg) in 2001. The cause for the preciptous drop was classic oversupply. Production had outpaced consumption leading to substantial inventory in freezers or as concentrate.

Cranberry handlers (processors) include Ocean Spray, Cliffstar, Inc., Northland Cranberries (now bankrupt,) Clement Pappas & Co., Decas Cranberry Products as well as a number of small handlers and processors.^[37]

See also

• Nutrition

References

1. ^ Cranberry Institute: About Cranberries
2. ^ HortResearch - Newsroom - 'Superfruits' the future of health
3. ^ Superfruit To the Rescue > General News | New Zealand News UK | nznewsuk.co.uk
4. ^ http://www.cranberries.org/cranberries/history.html
5. ^ The American Cranberry-Basic Information on Cranberries
6. ^ Cranberries: In-depth nutrient analysis Cranberry in-depth nutrient analysis, World's Healthiest Foods
7. ^ Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity of Selected Foods - 2007; Nutrient Data Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, November 2007
8. ^ U.S. Department of Agriculture: Nutrient Data Laboratory -- USDA Nutrient Database A searchable index of food nutrient composition. Search on cranberries for raw cranberry nutrient composition. Search on cranberry for other cranberry products.
9. ^ Seifried HE, Anderson DE, Fisher EI, Milner JA (September 2007). "A review of the interaction among dietary antioxidants and reactive oxygen species". J Nutr Biochem. 18 (9): 567–79. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2006.10.007. PMID 17360173. 
10. ^ Halliwell B (January 2007). "Dietary polyphenols: good, bad, or indifferent for your health?". Cardiovasc Res. 73 (2): 341–7. doi:10.1016/j.cardiores.2006.10.004. PMID 17141749. 
11. ^ The Cranberry Institute
12. ^ Blocking tooth decay
13. ^ McHarg T, Rodgers A, Charlton K (November 2003). "Influence of cranberry juice on the urinary risk factors for calcium oxalate kidney stone formation". BJU Int. 92 (7): 765–8. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04472.x. PMID 14616463. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=1464-4096&date=2003&volume=92&issue=7&spage=765. 
14. ^ Kessler T, Jansen B, Hesse A (October 2002). "Effect of blackcurrant-, cranberry- and plum juice consumption on risk factors associated with kidney stone formation". Eur J Clin Nutr 56 (10): 1020–3. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601442. PMID 12373623. 
15. ^ Duthie SJ, Jenkinson AM, Crozier A, et al. (March 2006). "The effects of cranberry juice consumption on antioxidant status and biomarkers relating to heart disease and cancer in healthy human volunteers". Eur J Nutr 45 (2): 113–22. doi:10.1007/s00394-005-0572-9. PMID 16032375. 
16. ^ Zheng W, Wang SY (January 2003). "Oxygen radical absorbing capacity of phenolics in blueberries, cranberries, chokeberries, and lingonberries". J Agric Food Chem. 51 (2): 502–9. doi:10.1021/jf020728u. PMID 12517117. 
17. ^ Cancer Research Society Newsletter : The Cranberry – A Natural and Delicious Antidote
18. ^ Neto CC (June 2007). "Cranberry and blueberry: evidence for protective effects against cancer and vascular diseases". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (6): 652–64. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200600279. PMID 17533651. 
19. ^ Ferguson PJ, Kurowska EM, Freeman DJ, Chambers AF, Koropatnick J (2006). "In vivo inhibition of growth of human tumor lines by flavonoid fractions from cranberry extract". Nutr Cancer 56 (1): 86–94. doi:10.1207/s15327914nc5601_12. PMID 17176222. 
20. ^ Seeram NP, Adams LS, Zhang Y, et al. (December 2006). "Blackberry, black raspberry, blueberry, cranberry, red raspberry, and strawberry extracts inhibit growth and stimulate apoptosis of human cancer cells in vitro". J Agric Food Chem. 54 (25): 9329–39. doi:10.1021/jf061750g. PMID 17147415. 
21. ^ Sun J, Chu YF, Wu X, Liu RH (December 2002). "Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of common fruits". J Agric Food Chem. 50 (25): 7449–54. doi:10.1021/jf0207530. PMID 12452674. 
22. ^ Vinson JA, Su X, Zubik L, Bose P (November 2001). "Phenol antioxidant quantity and quality in foods: fruits". J Agric Food Chem. 49 (11): 5315–21. doi:10.1021/jf0009293. PMID 11714322. 
23. ^ Cranberries Keep the Doctor AND Dentist Away! University of Maine
24. ^ Cranberry juice creates energy barrier that keeps bacteria away from cells, study shows
25. ^ Compounds in cranberry juice show promise as alternatives to antibiotics
26. ^ How Cranberry Juice Can Prevent Urinary Tract Infections
27. ^ Jepson RG, Mihaljevic L, Craig J (2004). "Cranberries for preventing urinary tract infections". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD001321. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001321.pub3. PMID 15106157. 
28. ^ Linsenmeyer TA, Harrison B, Oakley A, Kirshblum S, Stock JA, Millis SR (2004). "Evaluation of cranberry supplement for reduction of urinary tract infections in individuals with neurogenic bladders secondary to spinal cord injury. A prospective, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study". J Spinal Cord Med 27 (1): 29–34. PMID 15156934. 
29. ^ Waites KB, Canupp KC, Armstrong S, DeVivo MJ (2004). "Effect of cranberry extract on bacteriuria and pyuria in persons with neurogenic bladder secondary to spinal cord injury". J Spinal Cord Med 27 (1): 35–40. PMID 15156935. 
30. ^ Lee BB, Haran MJ, Hunt LM, et al. (August 2007). "Spinal-injured neuropathic bladder antisepsis (SINBA) trial". Spinal Cord 45 (8): 542–50. doi:10.1038/sj.sc.3101974. PMID 17043681. 
31. ^ Cranberry health claims to boost sales in France, FoodNavigator.com-Europe, July 2004
32. ^ Jepson RG, Craig JC (June 2007). "A systematic review of the evidence for cranberries and blueberries in UTI prevention". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (6): 738–45. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200600275. PMID 17492798. 
33. ^ Clinicaltrials.gov, January 2008
34. ^ Li Z, Seeram NP, Carpenter CL, Thames G, Minutti C, Bowerman S (December 2006). "Cranberry does not affect prothrombin time in male subjects on warfarin". J Am Diet Assoc 106 (12): 2057–61. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.09.012. PMID 17126638. 
35. ^ Pham DQ, Pham AQ (March 2007). "Interaction potential between cranberry juice and warfarin". Am J Health Syst Pharm 64 (5): 490–4. doi:10.2146/ajhp060370. PMID 17322161. 
36. ^ "Cranberry Blues" 1959 recording (mp3 file) by Robert Williams and the Groovers
37. ^ Roper TR, Vorsa N (1997). "Cranberry: Botany and Horticulture". in Janick J. Horticultural Reviews. New York: Wiley. pp. 215–6. ISBN 0-471-18907-3. http://www.pubhort.org/hr/hr21/HR_21_07_00000000.pdf. 

External links

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Cranberry

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cranberries

• The Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers Association general information about the WI cranberry industry
• Germplasm Resources Information Network: Sect. Oxycoccus and Sect. Oxycoccoides
• Cape Cod Cranberry Growers' Association for information on cranberry culture
• University of Massachusetts Amherst Cranberry Station for information on cranberry research
• Cranberry Library Page Hosted by the University of Wisconsin-Madison
• Wikimapia An overhead view of a cranberry farm near Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin
• Cranberry research at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - tranebær, tranebærbusk

Nederlands (Dutch)
Amerikaanse veenbos

Français (French)
n. - (Bot) canneberge

Deutsch (German)
n. - Preiselbeere

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (φυτολ.) φίγγι

Italiano (Italian)
mirtillo palustre

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n. - uva (f) do monte (Bot.)

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клюква

Español (Spanish)
n. - arándano agrio

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - tranbär

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
蔓越橘, 小红莓

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 蔓越橘, 小紅莓

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 넌출월귤 (진달래과)

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n. - ツルコケモモ

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‏(الاسم) نوع من التوت‏

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