ergonomics

n.

1. (used with a sing. verb) The applied science of equipment design, as for the workplace, intended to maximize productivity by reducing operator fatigue and discomfort. Also called biotechnology, human engineering, Also called human factors engineering.
2. (used with a pl. verb) Design factors, as for the workplace, intended to maximize productivity by minimizing operator fatigue and discomfort: The ergonomics of the new office were felt to be optimal.

[Greek ergon, work + (ECO)NOMICS.]

ergonomic er'go·nom'ic or er'go·no·met'ric (-nə-mĕt'rĭk) adj.
ergonomically er'go·nom'i·cal·ly adv.
ergonomist er·gon'o·mist (ûr-gŏn'ə-mĭst) n.

ergonomics

For more information on ergonomics, visit Britannica.com.

The science of people-machine relationships. An ergonomically designed product implies that the device blends smoothly with a person's body or actions.

Ergonomics

Although ergonomically designed seats, keyboards and mice are important, perhaps the most beneficial aspect of ergonomics is teaching people to get up periodically and stretch. (Redrawn from original illustration courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.)

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Risk Management control device used to minimize accidents and injuries to employees resulting from an unsafe working environment. For example, potential Cumulative Trauma Disorders losses may be lowered by using office furniture that reduces the physical and mental stress resulting from repetitive motions, such as constantly reading a computer screen.

Ergonomics is the science of fitting the job to the worker and adapting the work environment to the needs of humans. An overall goal of ergonomics is to promote health and safety and to optimize productivity.

The term ergonomics comes from the Greek words ergon, meaning "work", and nomos, meaning "laws"—thus, laws of work. The study of ergonomics as a way to reduce human error began in the military during the Korean War. In planes used for pilot training, the eject button was poorly placed and pilots sometimes accidentally ejected themselves—often at too low an altitude for their parachutes to open. The button's location was changed and fewer lives were lost.

Principles of ergonomics are now applied to the design of many elements of everyday life, from car seats to garden tools. Many different occupations are involved in implementing these "human factor" principles in the workplace, such as human factors/ergonomics specialists; safety engineers; industrial hygienists, engineers, designers; human resource managers; occupational medicine physicians and therapists; and chiropractors. Research in ergonomics is ongoing.

Knowledge of basic ergonomics principles is important for both workers and employers because both share responsibility for a safe work environment. One can easily imagine the potential hazards in manufacturing settings where equipment is operated and heavy materials are handled, but hazards exist in other environments, too. And technology (especially computer use) has brought about widespread changes in how work is accomplished.

Attention to ergonomics principles helps to reduce workplace injuries and illnesses that result in workers' compensation costs, medical claims, and lost work time. Many disorders and injuries are preventable when work conditions are designed for human safety and comfort. People need training in how to recognize hazards and safety problems as well as how to control their own behaviors for maximum comfort and health.

One of the key considerations in ergonomics is adjustability of physical elements. People come in all shapes and sizes, and the "average" workstation configuration will not fit everyone. Making changes during a workday in the physical setup of equipment, such as adjusting chair height, can alleviate discomfort and fatigue. Work surfaces should be at comfortable heights in relationship to a chair or to a standing position. Equipment and related items should be arranged conveniently.

Whenever a mismatch occurs between the physical requirements of a job and the physical capacity of a worker, musculoskeletal disorders can result. People working with intense concentration or at high speeds often work with poor posture. Cumulative trauma disorders (also called repetitive strain injuries) are caused by repeating the same motion in awkward positions or with noticeable force, such as in lifting heavy objects. Carpal-tunnel syndrome, a disorder affecting nerves in the wrist that has the potential to permanently disable, is a condition affecting people in a variety of occupations from meatpackers to musicians. Wrist pain can be severe, with treatment involving wrist splints, anti-inflammatory drugs, or even surgery. And people who use a computer extensively are especially prone to developing carpal-tunnel syndrome. Computer use often contributes to vision problems, too.

Posture in standing and in seated positions is important to avoid musculoskeletal disorders. The natural curve of the spine should be maintained, with the head balanced over the spine. When a person is seated:

• Feet should rest on the floor, with legs and body forming 90 to 110 angles.
• The body should be straight, with the neck upright and supporting the head balanced on the spine (not forward or twisted to the sides).
• Upper arms should be perpendicular to the floor; forearms should parallel the floor.

Symptoms of musculoskeletal disorders can begin as numbness or stiffness in joints or tingling, aching sensations in muscles. Pain or burning sensations may be evident, too. Often symptoms progress gradually, becoming more severe with prolonged exposure to the condition causing them. Damage to nerves, tendons, joints, or soft tissue can result.

With computer use so prevalent, poor work habits will contribute to musculoskeletal disorders for many people who spend long hours seated at a computer. These include the following:

• Wrists misaligned or excessive force used with a keyboard
• Poor posture used with an incorrect seating height
• A monitor incorrectly positioned, resulting in eye strain and vision problems
• Inappropriate lighting, causing glare on monitors and other work surfaces
• High concentration, causing infrequent breaks

The following paragraphs provide a few guidelines for working conditions when using a computer.

Chair: A well-designed chair with easy-to-implement adjustability is essential. A user can vary angles of back support and the seat pan to control the degree of pressure on the thighs and back. Weight should be evenly distributed, with no extreme pressure points. An upright posture is a little easier to achieve if the seat pan is tilted slightly forward of horizontal. When a person is seated, feet should rest on the floor and the chair seat pan should be even with the back of the knee, ranging from 13 to 19 inches above the floor depending on an individual's height. A foot rest may be used to relieve pressure on the thighs. Both lumbar and mid-level back support are needed. Arm rests, adjustable for height, are helpful to many people. The chair should have a five-point base for stability and casters for easy movement.

Keyboard : The keyboard provides the primary means of interacting with a computer. The keyboard should be in a comfortable position, and wrists should "float" over the keyboard when keying with a light touch so wrists and forearms remain straight. Although wrist pads are helpful for resting when not keying, they can actually create problems when a user keeps wrists on them when keying because the wrists can bend down. Different opinions exist on the appropriate angle of the keyboard; some people prefer a flat position while others find a reverse incline more comfortable. Split and curved key boards are available, too. However, the most important part of keyboard use is keeping the wrists straight in line with the forearm and not bent to the side. When voice-recognition technology be comes commonly used, dependency on the key board will be reduced.

Mouse : A mouse should be positioned next to the keyboard, reachable without extending the arm in an awkward position. Again, a light touch is needed and users should avoid gripping or squeezing the mouse. A wrist support or adjustable mouse platform may be helpful if a user begins to develop wrist problems. A variety of shapes are available for these pointing devices, and a trackball can be used for the same purpose.

Monitor : A monitor should be directly in front of the user, with the top of the screen at or below the line of sight, 18 to 30 inches away from the eyes, and tiltable to avoid glare from overhead lighting and windows. If necessary, antiglare filters can be added. Screen size should be large enough for easy reading of screen character sizes with a screen refresh rate fast enough to avoid a visible flicker. An individual can experience blurred vision or fatigue from a poor monitor viewing angle, reflected glare, or a low-quality monitor. Because glands in the eyelids produce tears that cleanse eyes as the eyelids blink and the eyes move, irritated eyes can develop because one's blink rate tends to decrease when one is concentrating.

To avoid neck and eyestrain, an individual should do the following:

• Use a copyholder positioned near the monitor to support material used with computer work.
• Use lower levels of lighting to reduce glare on monitors. Many older offices have high illumination levels that are necessary for paper-intensive tasks—but are too highly lighted for computer work. Softer overall, or ambient, lighting should be used, with task lighting added to surfaces as needed for more illumination.
• Relax eye muscles by shifting focus from the computer screen to distant objects for a few seconds every 5 to 10 minutes.
• Take micro breaks to stretch the neck, shoulders, hands, wrists, back, and legs as well as to rest the eyes. Stretching exercises can be simple neck rotations, shoulder shrugs, fists clenched and then released, or arms hanging down naturally for a few moments. Get up and move around about every 30 minutes. Take a brisk walk if possible. Exercises with hand weights will help with stretching and will give the body isometric exercise.

While it may be ideal to have individually adjustable temperature controls, this is not feasible in many work situations. For business offices, most people are comfortable with temperature levels at 68 to 72 in the winter and 72 to 76 in the summer. Humidity levels should be maintained between 40 to 60 percent not only for comfort but also for proper functioning of office equipment. Indoor air quality involves more than heating and cooling—air should be cleansed of pollutants (bacteria, dust, fumes, etc.), with fresh air added before circulation. Many factors affect the efficiency of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems. These systems must be designed for the number of people and the equipment to be used in each area because computers and other devices can produce almost as much heat as a human body produces.

Another important concept is adjustability of work pace. Jobs may require redesign to allow workers to accomplish tasks at varying speeds or to enable workers to rotate to different tasks or to use a variety of work methods that permit different movements. Rest breaks are important, too, and microbreaks can be taken to interrupt in tense situations, to rest arms and wrists, or to rest eyes.

Much ergonomics information is available in print and on the Internet, published by organizations such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the National Safety Council, the Human Factors and Ergonomic Society, and others. OSHA is developing ergonomics program standards that were to be published in 2000 (OSHA 1999). Consultants can provide technical expertise to help with all phases of ergonomics assessment and the implementation of corrective measures and/or training programs.

Bibliography

"Occupational Safety and Health Administration." http://www.osha~slc.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/. 1999.

[Article by: PAT R. GRAVES]

Why is the video recorder one of the most frustrating domestic items to operate? Why do some car seats leave you aching after a long journey? Why do some computer work-stations confer eye strain and muscle fatigue? Such human irritations and inconveniences are not inevitable — ergonomics is an approach which puts human needs and capabilities at the focus of designing technological systems. The aim is to ensure that humans and technology work in complete harmony, with the equipment and tasks aligned to human characteristics.

Ergonomics has wide application to everyday domestic situations, but there are even more significant implications for efficiency, productivity, safety, and health in work settings. For example:

(i) Designing equipment and systems, including computers, so that they are easier to use and less likely to lead to errors in operation — particularly important in high stress and safety-critical operations such as control rooms.
(ii) Designing tasks and jobs so that they are effective and take account of human needs such as rest breaks and sensible shift patterns, as well as other factors such as the intrinsic rewards of work itself.
(iii) Designing equipment and work arrangements to improve working posture and ease the load on the body, thus reducing instances of Repetitive Strain Injury/Work Related Upper Limb Disorder.
(iv) Information design, to make the interpretation and use of handbooks, signs, and displays easier and less error-prone.
(v) Design of training arrangements to cover all significant aspects of the job concerned and to take account of human learning requirements.
(vi) The design of military and space equipment and systems — an extreme case of demands on the human being.
(vii) Designing working environments, including lighting and heating, to suit the needs of the users and the tasks performed. Where necessary, design of personal protective equipment for work in hostile environments.
(viii) In developing countries, the acceptability and effectiveness of even fairly basic technology can be significantly enhanced.

The multi-disciplinary nature of ergonomics (sometimes called ‘Human Factors’) is immediately obvious. The ergonomist works in teams which may involve a variety of other professions: design engineers, production engineers, industrial designers, computer specialists, industrial physicians, health and safety practitioners, and specialists in human resources. The overall aim is to ensure that our knowledge of human characteristics is brought to bear on practical problems of people at work and in leisure. We know that, in many cases, humans can adapt to unsuitable conditions, but such adaptation leads often to inefficiency, errors, unacceptable stress, and physical or mental cost.

The components of ergonomics

Ergonomics deals with the interaction of technological and work situations with the human being. The basic human sciences involved are anatomy, physiology, and psychology. These sciences are applied by the ergonomist towards two objectives: the most productive use of human capabilities, and the maintenance of human health and well-being. In a phrase, ‘the job must fit the person’ in all respects, and the work situation should not compromise human capabilities and limitations.

The contribution of basic anatomy lies in improving the physical ‘fit’ between people and the things they use, ranging from hand tools to aircraft cockpit design. Achieving good physical fit is no mean feat when one considers the range in human body sizes across the population. The science of anthropometrics provides data on dimensions of the human body, in various postures. Biomechanics considers the operation of the muscles and limbs, and ensures that working postures are beneficial, and that excessive forces are avoided.

Our knowledge of human physiology supports two main technical areas. Work physiology addresses the energy requirements of the body, and sets standards for acceptable physical work-rate and workload, and for nutrition requirements. Environmental physiology analyses the impact of physical working conditions — thermal, noise and vibration, and lighting — and sets the optimum requirements for these.

Psychology is concerned with human information processing and decision-making capabilities. In simple terms, this can be seen as aiding the cognitive ‘fit’ between people and the things they use. Relevant topics are sensory processes, perception, long- and short-term memory, decision making, and action. There is also a strong thread of organizational psychology.

The importance of the psychological dimension of ergonomics should not be underestimated in today's ‘high-tech’ world — remember the video recorder example at the beginning. The ergonomist advises on the design of interfaces between people and computers (Human Computer Interaction or HCI), information displays for industrial processes, the planning of training materials, and the design of human tasks and jobs. The concept of ‘information overload’ is familiar in many current jobs. Paradoxically, increasing automation, while dispensing with human involvement in routine operations, frequently increases the mental demands in terms of monitoring, supervision, and maintenance.

The ergonomics approach — understanding tasks … and the users

Underlying all ergonomics work is careful analysis of human activity. The ergonomist must understand all of the demands being made on the person, and the likely effects of any changes to these — the techniques which enable him to do this come under the portmanteau label of ‘job and task analysis’.

The second key ingredient is to understand the users. For example, ‘consumer ergonomics’ covers applications to the wider contexts of the home and leisure. In these non-work situations the need to allow for human variability is at its greatest — the people involved have a very wide range of capabilities and limitations (including the disabled and elderly), and seldom have any selection or training for the tasks which face them.

This commitment to ‘human-centred design’ is an essential ‘humanizing’ influence on contemporary rapid developments in technology, in contexts ranging from the domestic to all types of industry.

— David Whitfield, Joe Langford

Bibliography

• Kroemer, K. (1997). Fitting the task to the human, (5th edn). Taylor and Francis, London.
• Norman, D. A. (1988). The psychology of everyday things. Basic Books Inc., New York. (Reprinted in paperback as The design of everyday things. Doubleday, New York, 1990.)

n

The field of science including all aspects pertaining to a comparison of the mental and physical exhaustion produced to the quantity and quality of the deliverable care.

Ergonomics is the science of fitting the demands of work to the physical capacities of the worker. Its inception during World War II by the U.S. military was in response to the realization that disparities in work demands and physical capacities can result in serious injury and death.

Ergonomic injuries have become the most common cause of workplace illness and injury in the United States. Back injuries and cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) such as carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, bursitis, and epicondylitis account for the overwhelming majority of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses, costing employers more than $12 billion per year in lost work time, workers' compensation payments, and medical expenses.

CTDs have increased dramatically since 1980, comprising roughly 18 percent of occupational illnesses in 1980 versus 65 percent in the late 1990s. Australia, Japan, and other countries experienced dramatic increases in ergonomics problems during the last two decades of the twentieth century. Over 332,000 cases of work-related CTDs were reported in the United States in 1994. Back injuries make up roughly 27 percent of the nonfatal occupational injuries annually, and the back is the part of the body most commonly injured during work. In November 2000, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration issued an Ergonomics Program Standard to help control ergonomics risks at work.

Occupational Risk Factors for Ergonomic Disorders

Occupational risk factors for ergonomic injuries include high force, high repetition, awkward postures, direct trauma or contact stress from hard or sharp surfaces, prolonged exposure to cold ambient temperatures, and exposure to whole body or segmental vibration. For cumulative trauma disorders, these risk factors may be present during hand-tool use, in manufacturing assembly or packaging jobs, or while working at computer workstations. High rates of CTDs are found in manufacturing, construction, and office trades. Back injuries are most prevalent among workers involved in manual materials handling, including truck drivers, nurses and nurses aides, forklift operators, and construction workers. High rates of back injuries are also found among workers in sedentary jobs, typically associated with postural stress.

While back injuries are administratively often handled as injuries (suggesting a single traumatic exposure) experts recognize that most back injuries and CTDs develop gradually over time from a combination of wear and tear on the nervous, vascular, and connective tissues of the body. Based upon this, corporations and experts focus their prevention strategies on reducing cumulative exposures to the risk factors described above.

Strategies for Prevention

Redesigning tools or workstations to reduce the risk factors is considered to be the best approach for preventing back injuries and CTDs. Making workstations adjustable to fit the range of body sizes of workers and providing specific training in risk avoidance goals and adjustment procedures are central to prevention. For example, computer workstations that can be adjusted to optimize the height and angle of the monitor, keyboard, and chair help to reduce ergonomic risks to the extremities and back, but are effective only if employees know how to adjust them. Other steps to manage ergonomic risks include providing a system for managers and employees to work jointly toward identifying and resolving problems, employee and supervisor training on risk factors and symptoms, job hazard analysis of ergonomic risks, and proper medical surveillance and management.

(SEE ALSO: Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, Cumulative Trauma; Ergonomics; Occupational Safety and Health; Occupational Safety and Health Administration)

Bibliography

Bernard, B. (1997). "Musculoskeletal Disorders and Workplace Factors." National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Publication No. 97–141.

— RICHARD M. LYNCH

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Although there had been many studies into work efficiency earlier in the century, particularly in such fields as kitchen design, which underwent considerable changes in the early 20th century, the use of the term ‘ergonomics’ in connection with design was increasingly used in the decades following the end of the Second World War. Literally meaning the scientific study of the efficiency of human beings in their work environment, ergonomics was an important aspect of efficient work practices during the war. Known also as ‘human engineering’ or ‘human factors’ in the United States and ‘biotechnics’ in a number of European countries it was of increasing interest to those involved in design in industry and resulted in the establishment of numerous societies (such as the Ergonomics Research Society, established 1949), courses, and conferences around the world. Such leanings were in tune with the rise of the Design Methods movement that emerged in the later 1950s, an approach to designing that had a legacy in certain aspects of Design Management and the focus of the Design Research Society. Ergonomics also emerged in relation to the study and influence of Anthropometrics.

See also Gilbreth, Lillian; Schütte-Lihotsky, Margarete.

Study of the relationships between working humans and e.g. tools, machinery, and instrument panels to ensure the efficiency and usability of designs.

Bibliography

• Murrell (1965)
• Sanders & E. McCormick (1993)

The full bibliography for this book is available to download as a pdf file.
Download the bibliography for A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (PDF: 1.2MB)

The study of relationship between workers and their environment with particular emphasis on engineering aspects. In sport, ergonomics includes the study of designs that produce the most efficient racing cycles, canoes, and other sports equipment.

(ur-guh-nom-iks)

The technology concerned with the design, manufacture, and arrangement of products and environments to be safe, healthy, and comfortable for human beings.

The term is most often encountered in discussions of the design of furniture, tools, and other things built to be used by humans.

The study of efficiency of persons in their working environment, sometimes called 'human engineering'. It received its first impetus during the First World War, when the problem was to increase the productivity of semi-skilled munitions workers. This led to work by the British Medical Research Council's Industrial Health Research Board in the 1920s and 1930s on the effect of fatigue and boredom in repetitive tasks, and on the effect of the environment at work: lighting, heat and humidity, and noise. The main thrust came during the Second World War, when men in the fighting services had to handle equipment which was a lot more complex than they were used to. The obvious alternative to long and difficult training was to make the work easier.

1. Design of displays
2. Design of controls
3. Control–display compatibility
4. Layout of equipment
5. The environment at work
6. Interface between user and computer

1. Design of displays

Late in 1945, as soon as the war was over, Paul Fitts of the US Aero Medical Laboratory at Dayton, Ohio, started a comprehensive investigation of the problems facing people using the new complex equipment. He and his colleagues asked wartime pilots to describe actual experiences in which errors were made in reading and interpreting aircraft instruments. Of the 270 critical incidents reported, 40 involved a misreading of a three-handed altimeter by 1,000 feet (300 metres) or more.

An altimeter tells the pilot how high he is flying. Its three hands are covered with luminous paint. One hand is for the 10,000s, one for the 1,000s, and the third for the 100s. A bedside clock has only two luminous hands; even so, when waking up at night it is possible to confuse the minute hand and the hour hand, when the minute hand is pointing to a likely hour like 2 or 4 a.m. With three hands to confuse, the altimeter provides still greater opportunities for error. On a clear day, an error in reading the height will be realized because the pilot can see the ground below; but on a dark night, and when flying in or above cloud, the pilot has no external means of telling that he has misread his height. An investigation in the laboratory compared reading the three-handed altimeter with reading the same heights from a digital counter, like the counter showing mileage in a car. The three-handed altimeter took longer to read, an average of seven seconds, compared with about one second for the counter. It caused more errors of 1,000 feet or more, which could be fatal in an aircraft — 10 per cent compared with less than 1 per cent for the counter. Three-handed altimeters were used by the commercial airlines for another twenty years and continued to result in accidents. But they are not used now.

2. Design of controls

Fitts and his colleagues also asked the wartime pilots about errors in operating the controls of aircraft. Practically all the pilots of the US Army Air Force who were questioned reported that they sometimes made errors. Of the 460 errors reported, 89 involved confusing the three engine controls which alter the throttle, the propeller speed, and the fuel mixture. This was because the three controls were located in three different orders in three of the standard aircraft in use at the time. A pilot who was used to flying one type of aircraft was particularly likely to make an error when he changed to flying one of the other two types. As Fitts remarked: 'Imagine the difficulty most car drivers would experience in learning to brake with the left foot and to use the clutch pedal with the right.' In aircraft the error can be serious if just after take-off the pilot inadvertently reduces the throttle or mixture, when he intends to reduce the propeller speed. Yet pilots are trained not to look at the controls they are operating: they have to look at their instruments, and at the world outside the aircraft. They should not need to look to see if they are operating the correct control.

These and other reports of confusion between the controls of aircraft also led to laboratory investigations. One question investigated was the distance between controls needed to prevent a person from operating the wrong control. Another was the shape of control knobs needed, so that each could easily be identified and distinguished by touch. Following this work, the controls in aircraft are now separated and shaped to avoid confusion, and they are located in approximately the same position in each new type of aircraft. (See also transfer.)

3. Control–display compatibility

Of the 460 pilot errors reported in operating controls, 27 involved moving the control in the direction opposite to that required to produce the desired result. Some of these moves would have been in the correct direction if the pilot had been in his accustomed type of aircraft, and they are avoided by standardizing controls between aircraft. But other errors involved moving the control in the 'natural' or 'expected' direction, which happened to be wrong.

This finding led Fitts to his principle of 'control–display compatibility'. The most compatible control is the display marker itself. In setting the minute hand of a clock, the minute hand is clasped directly with the fingers and rotated to the desired time. The nearer the control–display relationship can approximate to this, the easier it will be for the person operating the control. If the clock hand is controlled by a knob or key, the control should rotate in the same direction as the clock hand, not in the reverse direction. Where a number of instrument displays and their controls are located on a single panel, each control should be next to its display. The controls should not be mounted on a separate panel far away from their displays, or the person may operate the wrong control in error.

4. Layout of equipment

The investigations of displays and controls led naturally to investigations of the optimal layout for a set of displays and their related controls. People have to be able to see the displays and to reach the controls. Yet people come in different sizes: from anthropometry, the systematic measurement of body heights and lengths of limb segments, it became clear that seats must be adjustable, both in height and in the distance from the working surfaces. With adjustable seats, most displays and controls are now located in positions suited to the people who use them. The strength of the limbs operating controls in various positions has also been measured, to ensure that a control in a particular position is not too stiff to operate.

The layout of individual workplaces is now often part of the overall layout of a control room or factory department. Since equipment has to be maintained as well as operated, it is necessary to leave space behind the consoles for the maintenance engineers. The time spent maintaining equipment may be small compared with that during which it is operated but, when equipment breaks down, it is inconvenient, expensive, or in the case of military equipment unacceptable if repairs cannot be carried out quickly. Thus maintenance needs have to be considered in design, as well as the needs of operatives.

In planning a factory department, the ergonomist now usually considers the organization of the work to be done. Some functions can be performed automatically, while others require people. The layout of the machines and work stations is made to follow the sequence of operations to be carried out.

5. The environment at work

Equipment sometimes needs to be designed especially for the environment in which it is to be used. Driving farm tractors and harvesters over rough fields subjects both the driver and the equipment to vertical vibration and jolting. The vibration blurs the numbers on the instrument scales, and so they have to be larger than usual if they are to be read easily. The jolting may make the driver move a control accidentally: the chances of this happening may be reduced if the controls move horizontally — that is, at right angles to the vertical jolting.

It is particularly important for the equipment which a person is using in a noisy environment to be designed ergonomically. In quiet surroundings a person can usually hear when he is operating equipment correctly: switches may produce audible clicks when they are pressed, and the tap of a hammer has a higher pitch when it hits a nail or rivet than when it misses and hits wood or canvas. In noisy surroundings such cues may not be audible, or may be difficult to distinguish one from another. If in operating equipment a person has to use his eyes, or sense of touch, instead of his ears, and if these senses are already heavily engaged, he may fail to notice mistakes.

The medical problems of the environment at work are now giving ergonomics a new impetus. Loud noise causes industrial deafness, as well as masking sounds, and calls for noise control and hearing protection. Vehicles and aircraft crashing at speed cause injuries that call for better designs of safety harness and seat belts. Work under water, say on oil and gas installations, is carried out at pressures several times greater than atmospheric pressure, and requires foolproof equipment (see also diver performance). Industrial processes produce dusts, vapours, and gases which may cause cancer or other illnesses. Ionizing radiation, and electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength, like gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, and the microwaves used in cooking, can also damage the human organism. Dosimeters have to be designed and worn. The more generally harmful effects of atmospheric pollution need to be reduced by changes in industrial activity. Ergonomists today require knowledge of chemistry and physics in addition to their traditional knowledge of displays and controls.

6. Interface between user and computer

Research has now expanded to study the interface between people and computers. At first a computer system was considered acceptable as long as it worked. To use the system, the operator had to learn to think like the computer engineers who designed the system. The few full-time computer operators learnt to do this, but it was too difficult for many of the non-specialists who wanted to use a computer to help them with their job. Research is now directed towards designing 'user-friendly' interfaces, which are easy for the part-time and casual user to learn and use (Card, Moran, and Newell 1983).

(Published 1987)

— E. C. Poulton

Bibliography
• Card, S. K., Moran, T. P., and Newell, A. (1983). The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction.
• Fitts, P. M., and Jones, R. E. (1947). '(i) Analysis of factors contributing to 460 "pilot-error" experiences in operating aircraft controls; (ii) Psychological aspects of instrument display: analysis of 270 "pilot-error" experiences in reading and interpreting aircraft instruments'. Reprinted in Sinaiko, H. W. (ed.), Selected Papers on Human Factors in the Design and Use of Control Systems (1961).
• Parker, J. F., Jr., and West, V. R. (eds.) (1973). Bioastronautics Data Book (2nd edn.).
• Poulton, E. C. (1979). The Environment at Work.
• Van Cott, H. P., and Kinkade, R. G. (eds.) (1972). Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design (rev. edn.).

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The science of relating the physiological and anatomical characteristics of the working or racing animal to the physical aspects of its working environment.

The activity or science of designing, building, or equipping mechanical devices or artificial environments to the anthropometric, physiological, or psychological requirements of the men and women who will use them.

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Ergonomics

Dansk (Danish)
n. - ergonomi

Nederlands (Dutch)
ergonomie

Français (French)
n. - ergonomie

Deutsch (German)
n. - Ergonomie (Studie über die Arbeitseffizienz von Menschen), %

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - εργονομία, βιοτεχνολογία

Italiano (Italian)
ergonomia

Português (Portuguese)
n. - ergonomia (f)

Русский (Russian)
эргономика

Español (Spanish)
n. - ergonomía

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - ergonomi

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
人类工程学, 人体工学

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. pl. - 人類工程學, 人體工學
n. - 人類工程學, 人體工學

한국어 (Korean)
n. pl. - 인간 공학
n. - 생물공학

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 人間工学

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) علم البيئه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. pl. - ‮חקר פיריון העבודה, ארגונומיקה‬
n. - ‮חקר פיריון העבודה‬

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