Psychological views
Early theories
Gautama Buddha discussed the role of the mind in the pursuit of happiness through the
practice of the eightfold path. According to Buddha, "Mind is the forerunner of
states of existence. Mind is chief, and (those states) are caused by the mind. If one speaks and acts with a pure mind, surely
happiness will follow like one's own shadow!" In Buddhism, the third of the Four Noble
Truths states "to eliminate suffering, eliminate craving",
thus establishing happiness as beyond material and emotional possession and attainable only through an attentive practice leading
to extinguishing of craving and aversion.[1] According to
Jainism, happiness and bliss is the natural state of the soul. A soul when liberated from all
its karmas experiences infinite bliss, knowledge and perception.
The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who 2300 years ago sought to give advice to the
ruthless political leaders of the warring states period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser
self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self" (the moral self) and that getting the priorities right between these two
would lead to sagehood. He argued that if we did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with
"righteous deeds" that force would shrivel up (Mencius,6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating
joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through music.[2]
About one hundred years later the Hindu thinker Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutra, wrote quite exhaustively on the
psychological and ontological roots of bliss.[3]
Positive psychology
In his book Authentic Happiness Martin Seligman, one of the founders of
Positive psychology, describes happiness as consisting of both positive emotions (such as ecstasy and comfort) and positive activities (such
as absorption and engagement). He presents three categories of positive emotions related to the past, present and future.
Positive emotions relating to the past include satisfaction, contentment, pride and serenity. Positive emotions relating to
the future include optimism, hope and trust. Positive emotions about the present are divided into two categories which are
significantly different: pleasure and gratifications. The bodily and higher pleasures are "pleasures of the moment" and usually
involve some external stimulus.
Gratifications involve full engagement, flow, elimination of self-consciousness,
and blocking of felt emotions. But when a gratification comes to an end then positive emotions
will be felt. Gratifications can be obtained or increased by developing signature strengths and
virtues. Authenticity is the derivation of
gratification and positive emotions from exercising signature strengths. The good life comes from
using signature strengths to obtain abundant gratification in, for example, enjoying work and creative activities. The most
profound sense of happiness is experienced through the "meaningful life", achieved if one exercises one's uniques strengths and
virtues in a purpose greater than one's own immediate goals.
Mechanistic view
Biological basis
A person's overall happiness is objectively measurable; it does have a real physiological component. The neurotransmitter dopamine, perhaps especially in the mesolimbic pathway projecting from the midbrain to structures such as the nucleus accumbens, is involved in desire and seems often related to pleasure. Pleasure can be induced
artificially with drugs, perhaps most directly with opiates such as morphine, with activity on mu-opioid receptors. There are neural
opioid systems that make and release the brain's own opioids, active at these receptors. Mu-opioid neural systems are complexly
interrelated with the mesolimbic dopamine system. New science, using genetically altered mice, including ones deficient in
dopamine or in mu-opioid receptors, is beginning to tease apart the functions of dopamine and mu-opioid systems, which some
scientists (e.g., Kent C. Berridge) think are more directly related to
happiness.[citation needed] Stefan Klein in his book "The Science
of Happiness" links these biological foundations of happiness to the concepts and findings of Positive Psychology and Social
Psychology.
Neuroscientist R.J. Davidson has developed reliable tests to objectively quantify subjective levels of happiness using fMRI
and EEG.
In humans
When speaking of animals with the ability to reason (generally considered the exclusive domain
of humans), goals are no longer limited to short term satisfaction of basic drives. Nevertheless, there remains a strong
relationship of happiness to goal fulfillment and the brain's reinforcement mechanism, even if the goals themselves may be more
complex and/or cerebral, longer term, and less selfish than a non-human animal's goals might be. [citation needed]
Philosophers observe that short-term gratification, while briefly generating happiness, often requires a trade-off with
negative repercussions in the long run. Examples of this could be said to include developing technology and equipment that makes
life easier but over time ends up harming the environment, causing illness or wasting financial or other resources. Various
branches of philosophy, as well as some religious movements, suggest that "true" happiness only exists if it has no long-term
detrimental effects. Classical Utilitarianism is a theory of ethics based on quantitative
maximization of happiness.[citation needed]
From the observation that fish must become happy by swimming, and birds must become happy by flying, Aristotle points to the unique abilities of man as the route to happiness. Of all the animals only man can sit
and contemplate reality. Of all the animals only man can develop social relations to the political level. Thus the contemplative
life of a monk or professor, or the political life of a military commander or politician will be the happiest.[citation needed]
In contrast, Zhuangzi points out that only man is endowed with the ability necessary to
generate complex language and thought--language and thought that can be used to distinguish between things and form dichotomies.
These dichotomies then formed, man tries to find reasons to like one side of things and hate the other. Hence, he loses his
ability to love freely, in true happiness, unlike animals. [citation needed]
Mystical (religious, spiritual, and mythological) view
Explanation of happiness in mystical traditions, especially in advanced spiritual techniques is related to full balance
(conjunction, union, "secret marriage") of so called inner energy lines (energy channels of a soul or deepest dimension of the
human): nadi (ancient Indian), gimel kavim (Hebrew), pillars, columns, gnostic ophis or
caduceus. In balanced state two main lines (left & right, Ida & Pingala) form third line, called Shushumna or lashon hakodesh (hebr.). Speaking technically (full) activity of this third or central line is
happiness. Left and right lines include all aspects of normal human life: sleep and
awake, body and mind, physical and spiritual and so on. To attain balanced state of these 2 lines is a main task of life - a
paradoxical result of all kinds of activities and endeavours combined with full relax or tranquility at the same time.[citation needed]
In Catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity (Latin
equiv. to the Gk. eudaimonia), or "blessed happiness", described by the 13th-C.
philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a Beatific
Vision of God's essence in the next life. See Summa Theologiae
Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings and the Eightfold Path that will lead its practitioner to Nirvana, a state
of everlasting peace. In this teaching, happiness is only achieved by overcoming desire in all
forms. The philosophy and practice of Buddhism also encourages the generation of
compassion, the desire for the happiness and well being of others [1].
Recently series of articles have explored the issue of happiness through the processes in brain [2], through the choices that
confront the present generation[3], and show that having less possessions and simplifying life leads to sustainability and happiness[4]. Another article analysis
the relationship between evolution and happiness[5].
Worldwide happiness
The Satisfaction with Life Index is an attempt to show the average
self-reported happiness (subjective life satisfaction) in different
nations. This is an example of a recent trend to use direct measures of happiness, such as surveys asking people how happy they
are, as an alternative to traditional measures of policy success to GDP or GNP. Some studies suggest that happiness can be
measured effectively.[4][5]
There are also several examples of measures that includes self-reported happiness as one variable. Happy Life Years, a concept brought by Dutch sociologist
Ruut Veenhoven, combines self-reported happiness with life expectancy. The
Happy Planet Index combines it with life expectancy and ecological footprint. Gross national happiness is
a concept introduced by the King of Bhutan as an alternative to GDP but there is as yet no exact definition.[citation needed]
Happiness and economics
-
Typically market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a measure of successful policy. However, although on
average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, beyond an average GDP/capita of about $15,000 a year, studies
indicate the average income in a nation makes little difference to the average happiness of the people in the nation.[6][7] It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional
measures but as a supplement.[8]
Measuring Happiness
In 2007, the I.T. department of FriendsFirst - an Irish Life Assurance company operating in Cherrywood, South County Dublin -
introduced an initiative aimed at quantifying just how happy their I.T. staff really were. 'The Happiness Index' was a simple
HTML page, and potential responses ranged from 0% (potentially only for the clinically depressed) to 100%, ranging in increments
of 25%.
On a daily basis at 3.30 p.m. precisely, the submissions were pooled, and the average calculated. The Master of the Happiness
Index then communicated the results to the department, in terms such as "24 of you are an average of 44.2% happy today" (on a
Monday for example) or "17 of you are an average of 61% happy today (on a Thursday perhaps).
It was found that Happiness generally dipped on Tuesdays and Wednesdays but steadily rose on Thursdays and Fridays. Contrary
to popular belief, Monday was not the saddest day of the week, with that mantle undoubtedly going to Tuesday, consistently the
moodiest day.
Although it was a popular topic of 'water-cooler conversation', The Happiness Index was a short-lived phenomenon. The original
intention was use it as a management tool, and to indicate the 'mood of the camp', the general feeling was that people's
Happiness could not be measured in increments on 25%, and the Happiness Index was withdrawn from use in August 2007.
Currently, a free self-report Paths to Happiness inventory[9] is available online as a part of a research project conducted by Central Michigan University. The survey describes trait differences in the strategies for
seeking pleasure and happiness. The survey provides custom personality feedback on this trait.
What causes happiness - scientific research
Looking for the level of happiness as reported by people, and comparing it to various elements in their life reveals the
following findings:
1) about 50% of one's happiness depends of his genes. This is shown by studying identical twins, and learnig that their
happiness is 50% correlated even when growing up in different houses.
2) 10-15% is a result of various measurable variables. Like socioeconomic status, marital status, health, income, and
others.
3) The rest of the variance does not have a discernible cause. Called "unexplained variance". It may actually be attributed to
noise.
Religious involvement and happiness
There is now extensive research suggesting that 'religious' people are happier and less stressed.[10][11]
Surveys by Gallup, the National Opinion Research Centre and the Pew Organisation conclude
that spiritually committed people are twice as likely to report being "very happy" than the least religiously committed
people.[12] An analysis of over 200 social studies
contends that "high religiousness predicts a rather lower risk of depression and drug abuse and fewer suicide attempts, and more
reports of satisfaction with life and a sense of well-being"[13] and a review of 498 studies published in peer-reviewed journals concluded that a large majority of
them showed a positive correlation between religious commitment and higher levels of perceived well-being and self-esteem, and
lower levels of hypertension, depression and clinical delinquency.[14][15] Studies by
Keith Ward show that overall religion is a positive contributor to mental health[16] and a meta-analysis of 34 recent studies published between
1990 and 2001 also found that religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, being related to less
psychological distress, more life satisfaction, and better self-actualization.[17] Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that "the
majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of
psychological well-being (life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and with less depression, suicidal
thoughts and behavior, drug/alcohol use/abuse." [18]
See also
References
- Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Analysis of Happiness, The Hague, Martinus
Nijhoff, 1976.
- Daniel Gilbert, Stumbling on Happiness, Knopf, 2006
- Stefan Klein, The Science of Happiness, Marlowe 2006, ISBN 1-56924-328-X
- Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons From A New Science, Penguin,
2005.
- David G. Myers, Ph. D The Pursuit of Happiness: Who is Happy-- and Why, William Morrow and Co., 1992, ISBN
0-688-10550-5
- Martin E.P. Seligman, Ph. D Authentic Happiness, Free Press 2002, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9
- Osho, Joy, The Happiness That Comes from Within, St. Martin's Griffin 2004, ISBN
0-312-32074-4
Notes
- ^ Bhikkhu Nanamoli (1995). in Bhikkhu Bodhi: "The Middle Length Discourses of
the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya"
- ^ Chan, Wing-tsit, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1963.
- ^ Levine, Marvin, The Positive Psychology of Buddhism and Yoga :
Paths to a Mature Happiness, Lawrence Erlbaum (2000), ISBN 0-805-83833-3
- ^ The True Measure of Success - Wired.com
- ^ "Happiness" is not enough- Samuel Brittan: Templeton Lecture Inst. of Economic Affairs
22/11/01
- ^ Bruno S. Frey and Alois Stutzer Happiness and Economics, Princeton
University Press, December 2001; published in the UK by John Wiley & Sons.
- ^ In Pursuit of Happiness Research. Is It Reliable? What Does It Imply for Policy? The Cato
institute. April 11, 2007
- ^ A bigger economy doesn't always buy happiness - latimes.com
- ^ Paths to Happiness inventory
- ^ BBC
- ^ Time
- ^ Is Religion Dangerous?
p156, citing David Myers The Science of Subjective Well-Being Guilford Press
2007
- ^ Smith,Timothy, Michael McCullough, and Justin Poll. 2003: “Religiousness
and Depression: Evidence for a Main Effect and Moderating Influence of Stressful Life Events.” Psychological Bulletin
129(4):614–36.
- ^ Bryan Johnson & colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania
(2002)
- ^ Is Religion Dangerous?
cites similar results from the Handbook of Religion and Mental Health Harold Koenig (ed.) ISBN 978-0124176454
- ^ Is Religion Dangerous? Ch
9.
- ^ Hackney, Charles H. & Sanders, Glenn S. (2003) Religiosity and Mental
Health: A Meta–Analysis of Recent Studies. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 42 (1), 43-55.
doi:10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00160
- ^ Moreira-Almeida Alexander, Lotufo Neto Francisco, Koenig Harold G.
"Religiousness and mental health: a review". Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. [serial on the Internet].
2006 September, cited 2007 June 21, 2007 ; 28(3):
242-250.
External links
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