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The German philosopher, radical economist, and revolutionary leader Karl Marx (1818-1883) founded modern "scientific" socialism. His basic ideas - known as Marxism - form the foundation of socialist and communist movements throughout the world.

Karl Marx spent most of his life in exile. He was exiled from his native Prussia in 1849 and went to Paris, from which he was expelled a few months later. He then settled in London, where he spent the rest of his life in dire poverty and relative obscurity. He was hardly known to the English public in his lifetime. His reputation as a radical thinker began to spread only after the emergence of the socialist parties in Europe, especially in Germany and France, in the 1870s and 1880s. From then on, Marx's theories continued to be hotly debated in the growing labor and socialist movements everywhere, including Czarist Russia.

By the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, socialist parties everywhere had by and large accepted a considerable measure of Marxism, even though with modifications. This was especially true of the idea of the class struggle and the establishment of a socialist society, in which economic exploitation and social inequality would be abolished. Marxism achieved its first great triumph in the Russian Revolution of 1917, when its successful leader, V. I. Lenin, a lifelong disciple of Marx, organized the Soviet Union as a proletarian dictatorship based on Marx's philosophy, as Lenin interpreted it. Henceforth, Marx became a world figure and his theories a subject of universal attention and controversy.

Early Life

Marx was born in Trier, Rhenish Prussia, on May 5, 1818, the son of Heinrich Marx, a lawyer, and Henriette Presburg Marx, a Dutchwoman. Both Heinrich and Henriette were descendants of a long line of rabbis. Barred from the practice of law as a Jew, Heinrich Marx became converted to Lutheranism about 1817, and Karl was baptized in the same church in 1824, at the age of 6. Karl attended a Lutheran elementary school but later became an atheist and materialist, rejecting both the Christian and Jewish religions. It was he who coined the aphorism "Religion is the opium of the people," a cardinal principle in modern communism.

Karl attended the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Trier for 5 years, graduating in 1835, at the age of 17. The gymnasium curriculum was the usual classical one - history, mathematics, literature, and languages, particularly Greek and Latin. Karl became proficient in French and Latin, both of which he learned to read and write fluently. In later years he taught himself other languages, so that as a mature scholar he could also read Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Scandinavian, Russian, and English. As his articles in the New York Daily Tribune show, he came to handle the English language masterfully (he loved Shakespeare, whose works he knew by heart), although he never lost his heavy Teutonic accent in speaking.

In October 1835 Marx matriculated in Bonn University, where he attended courses primarily in jurisprudence, as it was his father's ardent wish that he become a lawyer. Marx, however, was more interested in philosophy and literature than in law. He wanted to be a poet and dramatist, and in his student days he wrote a great deal of poetry - most of it preserved - which in his mature years he rightly recognized as imitative and mediocre. He spent a year at Bonn, studying little but roistering and drinking. He spent a day in jail for disturbing the peace and fought one duel, in which he was wounded in the right eye. He also piled up heavy debts.

Marx's dismayed father took him out of Bonn and had him enter the University of Berlin, then a hub of intellectual ferment. In Berlin a galaxy of brilliant thinkers was challenging existing institutions and ideas, including religion, philosophy, ethics, and politics. The spirit of the great philosopher G. W. F. Hegel was still palpable there. A group known as the Young Hegelians, which included teachers such as Bruno Bauer and bright, philosophically oriented students, met frequently to debate and interpret the subtle ideas of the master. Young Marx soon became a member of the Young Hegelian circle and was deeply influenced by its prevailing ideas.

Marx spent more than 4 years in Berlin, completing his studies there in March 1841. He had given up jurisprudence and devoted himself primarily to philosophy. On April 15, 1841, the University of Jena awarded "Carolo Henrico Marx" the degree of doctor of philosophy on the strength of his abstruse and learned dissertation, Difference between Democritean and Epicurean Natural Philosophy, which was based on Greek-language sources.

His Exile

Marx's hopes of teaching philosophy at Bonn University were frustrated by the reactionary policy of the Prussian government. He then turned to writing and journalism for his livelihood. In 1842 he became editor of the liberal Cologne newspaper Rheinische Zeitung, but it was suppressed by the Berlin government the following year. Marx then moved to Paris. There he first came in contact with the working class, gave up philosophy as a life goal, and undertook his serious study of economics.

In January 1845 Marx was expelled from France "at the instigation of the Prussian government," as he said. He moved to Brussels, where he lived until 1848 and where he founded the German Workers' party and was active in the Communist League. It was for the latter that he, with his friend and collaborator Friedrich Engels, published, in 1848, the famous Manifesto of the Communist Party (known as the Communist Manifesto). Expelled by the Belgian government for his radicalism, Marx moved back to Cologne, where he became editor of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung in June 1848. Less than a year later, in May 1849, the paper was suppressed by the Prussian government, and Marx himself was exiled. He returned to Paris, but in September the French government expelled him again. Hounded from the Continent, Marx finally settled in London, where he lived as a stateless exile (Britain denied him citizenship and Prussia refused to renaturalize him) for the rest of his life.

In London, Marx's sole means of support was journalism. He wrote for both German-and English-language publications. From August 1852 to March 1862 he was correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune, contributing a total of about 355 articles, many of which were used by that paper as leading (unsigned) editorials. Journalism, however, paid wretchedly (£2 per article); Marx was literally saved from starvation by the continuous financial support of Engels. In 1864 Marx helped to found in London the International Workingmen's Association (known as the First International), for which he wrote the inaugural address. In 1872 he dissolved the International, to prevent it from falling into the hands of the anarchists under the leadership of Mikhail Bakunin. Thereafter, Marx's political activities were confined mainly to correspondence with radicals in Europe and America, offering advice and helping to shape the socialist and labor movements.

Appearance and Personal Life

Marx was short and stocky, with a bushy head of hair and flashing eyes. His skin was swarthy, so that his family and friends called him Mohr in German, or Moor in English. He himself adopted the nickname and used it with intimates. His physique gave an impression of vigor, despite the fact that he was a latent tubercular (four of his younger siblings died of tuberculosis). A man of immense learning and sharp intellectual power, Marx, often impatient and irascible, antagonized people by his sardonic wit, bluntness, and dogmatism, which bordered on arrogance. His enemies were legion. Yet, despite his deserved reputation as a hard and disagreeable person, he had a soft spot for children; he deeply loved his own daughters, who, in turn, adored him.

Marx was married to his childhood sweetheart, Jenny von Westphalen, who was known as the "most beautiful girl in Trier," on June 19, 1843. She was totally devoted to him. She died of cancer on Dec. 2, 1881, at the age of 67. For Marx it was a blow from which he never recovered.

The Marxes had seven children, four of whom died in infancy or childhood. Of the three surviving daughters - Jenny (1844-1883), Laura (1845-1911), and Eleanor (1855-1898) - two married Frenchmen: Jenny, Charles Longuet; Laura, Paul Lafargue. Both of Marx's sons-in-law became prominent French socialists and members of Parliament. Eleanor lived with Edward Aveling and was active as a British labor organizer. Both Laura and Eleanor committed suicide.

Marx spent most of his working time in the British Museum, doing research both for his newspaper articles and his books. He was a most conscientious scholar, never satisfied with secondhand information but tracing facts and figures to their original sources. In preparation for Das Kapital, he read virtually every available work in economic and financial theory and practice in the major languages of Europe.

At home, Marx often stayed up till four in the morning, reading and making voluminous notes in his tight handwriting, which was so crabbed as to be almost unreadable. He was a heavy smoker of pipes and cigars, using up quantities of matches in the process. His workroom was densely smoke-filled. "Das Kapital," he told his son-in-law Paul Lafargue, "will not even pay for the cigars I smoked writing it."

Marx's excessive smoking, wine drinking, and consumption of heavily spiced foods may have been contributory causes to his illnesses, most of which would appear to be, in the light of modern knowledge, allergic and psychosomatic. In the last two decades of his life he was tormented by a mounting succession of ailments that would have tried the patience of Job. He suffered from hereditary liver derangement (of which, he claimed, his father died); frequent outbreaks of carbuncles and furuncles on his neck, chest, back, and buttocks (often he could not sit); toothaches; eye inflammations; lung abscesses; hemorrhoids; pleurisy; and persistent headaches and coughs that made sleep impossible without drugs. In the final dozen or so years of his life, he could no longer do any sustained intellectual work. He died in his armchair in London on March 14, 1883, about two months before his sixty-fifth birthday. He lies buried in London's Highgate Cemetery, where the grave is marked by a bust of him.

His Works

Marx's writings fall into two general categories, the polemical-philosophical and the economic-political. The first reflected his Hegelian-idealistic period; the second, his revolutionary-political interests.

Marx wrote hundreds of articles, brochures, and reports but few books as such. He published only five books during his lifetime. Two of them were polemical, and three were political-economic. The first, The Holy Family (1845), written in collaboration with Engels, was a polemic against Marx's former teacher and Young Hegelian philosopher Bruno Bauer. The second was Misère de la philosophie (The Poverty of Philosophy), written by Marx himself in French and published in Paris and Brussels in 1847. As its subtitle indicates, this polemical work was "An Answer to the Philosophy of Poverty by M. Proudhon."

Marx's third book, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, published serially in a German publication in New York City in 1852, is a brilliant historical-political analysis of the rise and intrigues of the Bonaparte who became Napoleon III. The remaining two books, both on economics, are the ones on which Marx's worldwide reputation rests: Critique of Political Economy and, more particularly, Das Kapital (Capital).

Critique was published in 1859, after about 14 years of intermittent research. Marx considered it merely a first installment, expecting to bring out additional volumes, but he scrapped his plan in favor of another approach. The result was Das Kapital, subtitled Critique of Political Economy, of which only the first volume appeared, in 1867, in Marx's lifetime. After his death, two other volumes were brought out by Engels on the basis of the materials Marx left behind. Volumes 2 (1885) and 3 (1894) can be properly regarded as works by Marx and Engels, rather than by Marx himself. Indeed, without Engels, as Marx admitted, the whole monumental enterprise might not have been produced at all. On the night of Aug. 16, 1867, when Marx completed correcting the proof sheets of volume 1, he wrote to Engels in Manchester: "I have YOU alone to thank that this has been made possible. Without your sacrifices for me I could never possibly have done the enormous work for the three volumes. I embrace you, full of thanks!"

A fourth volume of Das Kapital was brought together by Karl Kautsky after Engels's death. It was based on Marx's notes and materials from Critique of Political Economy and was published in three parts, under the title Theories of Surplus Value, between 1905 and 1910. A Russian edition, also in three parts, came out between 1954 and 1961, and an English translation in 1968.

Two of Marx's books were published posthumously. The Class Struggles in France, 1848-1850, written in 1871, appeared in 1895. It was, Engels wrote in his introduction, "Marx's first attempt, with the aid of his materialist conception, to explain a section of contemporary history from the given economic situation." The second posthumous work, The German Ideology, which Marx wrote in collaboration with Engels in 1845-1846, was not published in full until 1932. The book is an attack on the philosophers Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach and Max Stirner and on the so-called true socialists.

The rest of Marx's publications, mostly printed posthumously, consist of brochures. Herr Vogt (1860) is a furious polemic against a man named Karl Vogt, whom Marx accused of being a police spy. Wage-Labor and Capital (1884) is a reprint of newspaper articles. Critique of the Gotha Programme (1891) consists of notes which Marx sent to the German Socialist party congress in 1875. Wages, Price and Profit (1898) is an address that Marx delivered at the General Council of the International in 1865.

His Ideas

Marx's world importance does not lie in his economic system, which, as critics point out, was not original but was derived from the classical economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Das Kapital, indeed, is not primarily a technical work on economics but one that uses economic materials to establish a moral-philosophical-sociological structure. Marx's universal appeal lies in his moral approach to social-economic problems, in his insights into the relationships between institutions and values, and in his conception of the salvation of mankind. Hence Marx is best understood if one studies, not his economics, but his theory of history and politics.

The central idea in Marx's thought is the materialistic conception of history. This involves two basic notions: that the economic system at any given time determines the prevailing ideas; and that history is an ongoing process regulated - predetermined - by the economic institutions which evolve in regular stages.

The first notion turned Hegel upside down. In Hegel's view, history is determined by the universal idea (God), which shapes worldly institutions. Marx formulated the reverse: that institutions shape ideas. This is known as the materialistic interpretation of history. Marx's second notion, that of historical evolution, is connected with his concept of dialectics. He saw in history a continuing dialectical process, each stage of development being the product of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.

Thus thesis corresponds to the ancient, precapitalist period, when there were no classes or exploitation. Antithesis corresponds to the era of capitalism and labor exploitation. Synthesis is the final product - communism, under which capital would be owned in common and there would be no exploitation.

To Marx, capitalism is the last stage of historical development before communism. The proletariat, produced by capitalism, is the last historical class. The two are fated to be in conflict - the class struggle, which Marx proclaimed so eloquently in the Communist Manifesto - until the proletariat is inevitably victorious and establishes a transitional order, the proletarian dictatorship, a political system which Marx did not elaborate or explain. The proletarian dictatorship, in turn, evolves into communism, or the classless society, the final stage of historical development, when there are no classes, no exploitation, and no inequalities. The logical implication is that with the final establishment of communism, history comes to a sudden end. The dialectical process then presumably ceases, and there are no more historical evolutions or social struggles. This Marxist interpretation of history, with its final utopian-apocalyptic vision, has been criticized in the noncommunist world as historically inaccurate, scientifically untenable, and logically absurd.

Nevertheless, Marx's message of an earthly paradise has provided millions with hope and new meaning of life. From this point of view, one may agree with the Austrian economist Joseph A. Schumpeter that "Marxism is a religion" and Marx is its "prophet."

Karl Marx
Marx in 1875
Born	Karl Heinrich Marx 5 May 1818 Trier, Kingdom of Prussia
Died	14 March 1883(1883-03-14) (aged 64) London, United Kingdom
Era	19th-century philosophy
Region	Western Philosophy, German philosophy
School	Marxism, Communism, Socialism, Materialism
Main interests	Politics, economics, philosophy, sociology, labour, history, class struggle,
Notable ideas	Co-founder of Marxism (with Engels), surplus value, contributions to the labor theory of value, alienation and exploitation of the worker, The Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital, materialist conception of history
Influenced by Hegel, Feuerbach, Spinoza, Proudhon, Stirner, Smith, Voltaire, Ricardo, Vico, Rousseau, Shakespeare, Goethe, Helvetius, d'Holbach,^[1] Liebig,^[2] Darwin, Fourier, Robert Owen, Balcescu, Hess, Hupay, Guizot, Pecqueur,^[3] Aristotle, Epicurus
Influenced Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky, Mao, Tito, Hoxha, Castro, Guevara, Ceaușescu, Ho, Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Luxemburg, Lukács, Gramsci, Korsch, Kropotkin, Bakunin, Chomsky, Bookchin, Arendt, Marcuse, Lyotard, Foucault, Deleuze, Debord, Situationist International, Frankfurt School, Negri, Taussig, Roy, Laclau, Bourdieu, Schumpeter, Aflaq and many others
Signature

Biography

Early life: 1818–1835

Marx's birthplace in Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate, which is now a museum devoted to him.

Karl Heinrich Marx was born on 5 May 1818 at 664 Brückergasse in Trier, a town located in the Kingdom of Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine.^[13] His ancestry was Ashkenazi Jewish, with his paternal line having supplied the rabbis of Trier since 1723, a role that had been taken up by his own grandfather, Meier Halevi Marx; Meier's son and Karl's father would be the first in the line to receive a secular education.^[14] His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi.^[15] Karl's father, Herschel Marx, was middle-class and relatively wealthy: the family owned a number of Moselle vineyards; he converted from Judaism to the Protestant Christian denomination of Lutheranism prior to his son's birth, taking on the German forename of Heinrich over Herschel.^[4] In 1815, he began working as an attorney and in 1819 moved his family from a five-room rented apartment into a ten-room property near the Porta Nigra.^[16] A man of the Enlightenment, Heinrich Marx was interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and Voltaire, and took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, which was then governed by an absolute monarchy.^[17] Karl's mother, born Henrietta Pressburg (20 July 1788-30 November 1863), was a Dutch Jew who, unlike her husband, was only semi-literate. She claimed to suffer from "excessive mother love", devoting much time to her family, and insisting on cleanliness within her home.^[18] She was from a prosperous business family. Her family later founded the company Philips Electronics: she was great-aunt to Anton and Gerard Philips, and great-great-aunt to Frits Philips. Her brother, Marx's uncle Benjamin Philips (1830-1900), was a wealthy banker and industrialist, who Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come rely upon for loans, while they were exiled in London.^[19]

Heinrich Marx converted to Lutheran Protestantism in 1816 or 1817 in order to continue practicing law after the Prussian edict denying Jews to the bar. Karl was born in 1818 and baptized in 1824, but his mother, Henriette, did not convert until 1825, when Karl was 7. There is no evidence that the Marx family actually embraced Lutheranism, although there is no evidence they were practicing Jews. Marx identified himself as an atheist.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Little is known about Karl Marx's childhood.^[23] He was privately educated until 1830, when he entered Trier High School, whose headmaster Hugo Wyttenbach was a friend of his father. Wyttenbach had employed many liberal humanists as teachers; this angered the government so that the police raided the school in 1832, discovering what they labelled seditious literature espousing political liberalism being distributed amongst the students.^[24] In 1835, Karl, then aged seventeen, began attending the University of Bonn, where he wished to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field of study.^[25] He was able to avoid military service when he turned eighteen because he suffered from a weak chest.^[26] Being fond of alcoholic beverages, at Bonn he joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society (Landsmannschaft der Treveraner) and at one point served as its co-president.^[27] Marx was more interested in drinking and socialising than studying law, and because of his poor grades, his father forced him to transfer to the far more serious and academically oriented University of Berlin,^[28] where his legal studies became less significant than excursions into philosophy and history.^[29]

Hegelianism and early activism: 1836–1843

In 1836, Marx became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, a beautiful baroness of the Prussian ruling class—"the most desirable young woman in Trier" ^[30] —who broke off her engagement with a young aristocratic second lieutenant to be with him.^[31] Their eventual marriage was controversial for breaking two social taboos of the period: it was a marriage between a woman of a noble background and a man of Jewish origin, as well as being between a member of the upper class (aristocracy) and a member of the middle class, respectively. Such issues were lessened by Marx's friendship with Jenny's father, Baron Ludwig von Westphalen, a liberal thinking aristocrat. Marx dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.^[32] The couple married seven years later, on 19 June 1843, at the Pauluskirche in Bad Kreuznach.^[33]

Marx became interested in, but critical of, the work of the German philosopher G.W.F Hegel (1770–1831), whose ideas were widely debated amongst European philosophical circles at the time.^[34] Marx wrote about falling ill "from intense vexation at having to make an idol of a view I detested."^[35] He became involved with a group of radical thinkers known as the Young Hegelians, who gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer.^[29] Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions, but still adopted his dialectical method in order to criticise established society, politics and religion. Marx befriended Bauer, and in July 1841 the two scandalised their class in Bonn by getting drunk, laughing in church, and galloping through the streets on donkeys.^[36] During that period, Marx concentrated on his criticism of Hegel and certain other Young Hegelians.^[4]

A contemporary drawing of Karl Marx as a young man.

Marx also wrote for his own enjoyment, writing both non-fiction and fiction. In 1837, he completed a short novel, Scorpion and Felix; a drama, Oulanem and some poems, none of which were published.^[37] In 1971, Marx's one act play Oulanem was made available in English by author Robert Payne. According to Payne, the title Oulanem is an anagram for "Manuelo" which is a variant of "Emmanuel" meaning "God is with us".^[38] He soon gave up writing fiction for other pursuits, including learning English and Italian.^[39]

He was deeply engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature, which he finished in 1841. The essay has been described as "a daring and original piece of work in which he set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy",^[40] and as such was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin. Marx decided to submit it instead to the more liberal University of Jena, whose faculty awarded him his PhD based on it.^[29]^[41]

From considering an academic career, Marx turned to journalism.^[4]^[42] He moved to the city of Cologne in 1842, where he began writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung, where he expressed his increasingly socialist views on politics.^[43] He criticised the governments of Europe and their policies, but also liberals and other members of the socialist movement whose ideas he thought were ineffective or outright anti-socialist.^[44] The paper eventually attracted the attention of the Prussian government censors, who checked every issue for potentially seditious material before it could be printed. Marx said, "Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear."^[45] After the paper published an article strongly criticising the monarchy in Russia, the Russian Tsar Nicholas I, an ally of the Prussian monarchy, requested that the Rheinische Zeitung be banned. The Prussian government shut down the paper in 1843.^[46] Marx wrote for the Young Hegelian journal, the Deutsche-Französische Jahrbücher, in which he criticised the censorship instructions issued by Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. His article was censored and the newspaper closed down by the authorities shortly after.^[47]

In 1843, Marx published On the Jewish Question, in which he distinguished between political and human emancipation. He also examined the role of religious practice in society.^[4] That same year he published Contribution to Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in which he dealt more substantively with religion, describing it as "the opiate of the people".^[4] He completed both works shortly before leaving Cologne.^[48]

Paris: 1843–1845

Following the government-imposed shutdown of the Rheinische Zeitung, Marx got involved with a new radical newspaper, the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher (German-French Annals), which was then being set up by Arnold Ruge, another German socialist revolutionary.^[49] The paper was based not in Germany, but in the city of Paris in neighbouring France, and it was here that both Marx and his wife moved in October 1843. They initially lived with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau, but finding these living conditions difficult, the Marxes moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.^[50] Although it was intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher was dominated by the latter, with the only non-German writer being the exiled Russian anarcho-communist Michael Bakunin.^[51] Only one issue was ever published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, which led to those copies sent to Germany being confiscated by the state's police force.^[52]

It was in Paris that, on 28 August 1844, Marx met German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence after becoming interested in the ideas that the latter had expressed in articles written for the Rheinische Zeitung and the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. Although they had briefly met each other at the offices of the Rheinische Zeitung in 1842, it was here in Paris that they began their friendship that would last for the rest of their lives.^[53] Engels showed Marx his recently published book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844,^[54] which convinced Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history.^[55] Engels and Marx soon set about writing a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, the Young Hegelian Bruno Bauer, which would be published in 1845 as The Holy Family.^[56] Although critical of Bauer, Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the other Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach, but eventually also abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.^[57]

In 1844 Marx wrote The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, a work which covered numerous topics, and went into detail to explain Marx's concept of alienated labour.^[4] A year later Marx would write Theses on Feuerbach, best known for the statement that "the philosophers have only interpreted the world, the point is to change it".^[4] This work contains Marx's criticism of materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (for reducing practice to theory) and overall, criticising philosophy for putting abstract reality above the physical world.^[4] It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's historical materialism, an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.^[4]^[58]

After the collapse of the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, Marx, still living on the Rue Vaneau, began writing for what was then the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper in Europe, Vorwärts!.^[59] Based in Paris, the paper had been established and was run by many activists connected to the revolutionary socialist League of the Just, which would come to be better known as the Communist League within a few years.^[60]^[61] In Vorwärts!, Marx continued to refine his views on socialism based upon the Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism, whilst at the same time criticising various liberals and other socialists operating in Europe at the time.^[62] However in 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government agreed to shut down Vorwärts!, and furthermore, Marx himself was expelled from France by the interior minister François Guizot.^[62]

Brussels: 1845–1847

The first edition of The Manifesto of the Communist Party, published in German in 1848

Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium, but had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics in order to enter.^[62] In Brussels, he associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and Joseph Weydemeyer, and soon Engels moved to the city in order to join them.^[62] In 1845 Marx and Engels visited the leaders of the Chartists, a socialist movement in Britain, using the trip as an opportunity to study in various libraries in London and Manchester.^[63] In collaboration with Engels he also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism, The German Ideology; the work, like many others, would not see publication in Marx's lifetime, being published only in 1932.^[4]^[5]^[64] He followed this with The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), a response to the French anarcho-socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's The Philosophy of Poverty and a critique of French socialist thought in general.^[65]

These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as The Communist Manifesto. First published on 21 February 1848, it laid out the beliefs of the Communist League, a group who had come increasingly under the influence of Marx and Engels, who argued that the League must make their aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding them as they had formerly been doing.^[66] The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism, that "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."^[67] It goes on to look at the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising between the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy middle class) and the proletariat (the industrial working class). Proceeding on from this, the Manifesto presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and replace it with socialism.^[68]

Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions, and often violent upheavals, the Revolutions of 1848.^[69] In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic.^[69] Marx was supportive of such activity, and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father of either 6000^[70] or 5000 francs,^[71]^[72] allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action.^[73] Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed,^[70]^[74] the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused him of it, subsequently arresting him, and he was forced to flee back to France, where, with a new republican government in power, he believed that he would be safe.^[72]^[75]

Cologne: 1848–1849

Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with various German socialists living there.^[76] Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne (Köln) where he began issuing a handbill entitled the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany, in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the Communist Manifesto, believing that in Germany at that time, the bourgeoisie must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie.^[77] On 1 June, Marx started publication of the daily Neue Rheinische Zeitung ("New Rhenish Newspaper"), which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father. Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, Marx remained one of its primary writers, accompanied by other fellow members of the Communist League who wrote for the paper, although despite their input it remained, according to Friedrich Engels, "a simple dictatorship by Marx", who dominated the choice of content.^[78]^[79]^[80]

Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police, and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor, an alleged press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting,^[81]^[82]^[82]^[83]^[84] although each time he was acquitted.^[82]^[84] Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in Prussia collapsed, and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counter-revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and other revolutionary elements from the country.^[81] As a part of this, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung was soon suppressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May.^[80]^[85] Marx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counter-revolution and a cholera epidemic, and was soon expelled by the city authorities who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child, and not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.^[86]^[87]

London: 1849–1883

Karl and hid daughter Jenny Marx (before May 1864.

Marx moved to London in May 1849 and would remain in the city for the rest of his life. It was here that he founded the new headquarters of the Communist League, and got heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society, who held their meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district.^[88]^[89] Marx devoted himself to two activities: revolutionary organising, and an attempt to understand political economy and capitalism. For the first few years he and his family lived in extreme poverty.^[90]^[91] His main source of income was his colleague, Engels, who derived much of his income from his family's business.^[91] Marx also briefly worked as correspondent for the New York Tribune in 1851.^[92]

From December 1851 to March 1852 Marx wrote The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, a work on the French Revolution of 1848, in which he expanded upon his concepts of historical materialism, class struggle and the dictatorship of the proletariat, advancing the argument that victorious proletariat has to smash the bourgeois state.^[93]

The 1850s and 1860s also mark the line between what some scholars see as idealistic, Hegelian young Marx from the more scientifically-minded mature Marx writings of the later period.^[94]^[95]^[96]^[97] This distinction is usually associated with the structural Marxism school;^[97] not all scholars agree that it indeed exists.^[96]^[98]

In 1864 Marx became involved in the International Workingmen's Association (also known as First International).^[82] He became a leader of its General Council, to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.^[99] In that organisation Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred around Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876).^[91] Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.^[100] The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871 when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. On the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, The Civil War in France, a defense of the Commune.^[101]

Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand capitalism, and spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying and reflecting on the works of political economists and on economic data.^[102] By 1857 he had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state, foreign trade and the world market; this work did not appear in print until 1941, under the title Grundrisse.^[91]^[103] In 1859, Marx published Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, his first serious economic work. In the early 1860s he worked on composing three large volumes, the Theories of Surplus Value, which discussed the theoreticians of political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo.^[91] This work is often seen as the fourth book of Capital, and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the history of economic thought.^[104] In 1867 the first volume of Capital was published, a work which analyzed the capitalist process of production.^[105] Here, Marx elaborated his labour theory of value (influenced by Thomas Hodgskin^{[citation needed]}); and his conception of surplus value and exploitation which he argued would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit and the collapse of industrial capitalism.^[106] Volumes II and III remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life and were published posthumously by Engels.^[91]

Marx in 1882

During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work.^[91] He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His Critique of the Gotha Programme opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party.^[91] This work is also notable for another famous Marx's quote: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."^[107]

In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx even contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village mir.^[91]^[108] While admitting that Russia's rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage, it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it (the rural commune) from all sides."^[109] Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed, that "normal conditions of spontaneous development" of the rural commune could exist.^[109] However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich, Marx points out that "at the core of the capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production."^[109] In one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past. He wrote that 'the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type — collective production and appropriation'. He added that 'the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies'.^[110] Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.

Death

The tomb of Karl Marx, Highgate Cemetery, London

Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883. He died a stateless person;^[111] family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery, London, on 17 March 1883. There were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral.^[112]^[113]

Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels. Engels's speech included the passage:

“

On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep—but forever.^[114]

”

Marx's daughter Eleanor and Charles Longuet and Paul Lafargue, Marx's two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.^[113] Liebknecht, a founder and leader of the German Social-Democratic Party, gave a speech in German, and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.^[113] Two telegrams from workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out.^[113] Together with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral.^[113] Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne communist trial of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist League" and Carl Schorlemmer, a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Society, and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution.^[113] Another attendee of the funeral was Ray Lankester, a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.^[113]

Upon his own death, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his $4.8 million estate.^[30]

Marx's tombstone bears the carved message: "WORKERS OF ALL LANDS UNITE", the final line of The Communist Manifesto, and from the 11th Thesis on Feuerbach (edited by Engels): "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways—the point however is to change it".^[9] The Communist Party of Great Britain had the monumental tombstone built in 1954 with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw; Marx's original tomb had had only humble adornment.^[9] In 1970 there was an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the monument using a homemade bomb.^[115]

The later Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked that "One cannot say Marx died a failure" because, although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia. Within 25 years of his death, the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics were each gaining between 15 and 47% in those countries with representative democratic elections.^[116]

Marx's thought

Inspirations


The philosophers G.W.F. Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach, whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx

Friedrich Engels

Main article: Influences on Karl Marx

Marx's thought demonstrates influences from many thinkers, including but not limited to:

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's philosophy;^[117]
The classical political economy (economics) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo;^[118]
French socialist thought,^[118] in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier;^[119]^[120]
Earlier German philosophical materialism, particularly that of Ludwig Feuerbach;^[57]
The working class analysis by Friedrich Engels.^[55]

Marx's view of history, which came to be called historical materialism (controversially adapted as the philosophy of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin) certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) dialectically.^[117] However, Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in the forefront, whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in materialist terms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.^[4]^[117] Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world.^[117] He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it upon its feet.^[117]

Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought,^[118] Marx criticised utopian socialists, arguing that their favoured small scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty, and that only a large scale change in the economic system can bring about real change.^[120]

The other important contribution to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution.^[55]

Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx concluded, therefore, that a communist revolution would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his Theses on Feuerbach that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it", and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.^[8]^[9]

Philosophy and social thought

Marx polemic with other thinkers often occurred through critique, and thus he has been called "the first great user of critical method in social sciences."^[117]^[118] He criticised speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology.^[121] By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases.^[118] This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.^[8]

Human nature

Further information: Marx's theory of human nature

Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature, which encompasses both human beings and material objects.^[122] Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.^[123]^[124] For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended.^[124] Marx further argues that, by molding nature^[125] in desired ways,^[126] the subject takes the object as its own, and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, then, human nature—Gattungswesen, or species-being—exists as a function of human labour.^[123]^[124]^[126] Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that, in order for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object, it must first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world.^[127] Marx acknowledges that Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his own work",^[128] but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and abstract.^[129] Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects."^[127] Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "labour", and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term "labour power".^[4]

Labour, class struggle, and false consciousness

Further information: Labour theory of value

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

— Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto^[67])

Marx had a special concern with how people relate to that most fundamental resource of all, their own labour power.^[130] He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation.^[131] As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.^[130] Capitalism mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.^[130] For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour—one's capacity to transform the world—is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss.^[130] Marx described this loss as commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behavior merely adapt.^[132]

Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called "false consciousness",^[133] which relates closely to the understanding of ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal.^[134] Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths; they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods; it includes the production of ideas as well (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests).^[4]^[135] An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface^[136] to his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right:

Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions.

—Karl Marx, Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right^[137]

Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic status quo and inequality.^[138]

Economy, history and society

Further information: Marxian economics

Marx's thoughts on labour were related to the primacy he gave to the economic relation in determining the society's past, present and future (see also economic determinism).^[117]^[120]^[139] Accumulation of capital shapes the social system.^[120] Social change, for Marx, was about conflict between opposing interests, driven, in the background, by economic forces.^[117] This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory.^[139] In his evolutionary model of history, he argued that human history began with free, productive and creative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism.^[117] Marx noted that this was not an intentional process; rather, no individual or even no state can go against the forces of economy.^[120]

The organisation of society depends on means of production. Literally those things, like land, natural resources, and technology, necessary for the production of material goods and the relations of production, in other words, the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production.^[139] Together these compose the mode of production, and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of distinct modes of production. Marx differentiated between base and superstructure, with the base (or substructure) referring to the economic system, and superstructure, to the cultural and political system.^[139] Marx regarded this mismatch between (economic) base and (social) superstructure as a major source of social disruption and conflict.^[139]

Despite Marx's stress on critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society that should replace it, his explicit critique of capitalism is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones (slavery and feudal).^[4] Marx also never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice, although scholars agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts.^[4]

Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow. The inscription reads "Proletarians of all countries, unite!"

Marx's view of capitalism was two sided.^[4]^[95] On one hand, Marx, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system, noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment; on the other hand capitalism is also characterised by "revolutionizing, industrializing and universalizing qualities of development, growth and progressivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased productivity and growth, rationality and scientific revolution), that are responsible for progress.^[4]^[95]^[117] Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history, because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history, and was responsible for the overthrow of feudalism and its transition to capitalism.^[120]^[140] Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist can, and has an incentive to, reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.^[130]

According to Marx capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "surplus value" and argued that this surplus value had its source in surplus labour, the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive and what they can produce.^[4] Marx's dual view of capitalism can be seen in his description of the capitalists: he refers to them as to vampires sucking worker's blood, but at the same time,^[117] he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice"^[4] and that capitalists simply cannot go against the system.^[120] The true problem lies with the "cancerous cell" of capital, understood not as property or equipment, but the relations between workers and owners – the economic system in general.^[120]

At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable, and prone to periodic crises.^[5] He suggested that over time, capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies, and less and less in labour.^[4] Since Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from labour is the source of profits, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as the economy grew.^[106] Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth, collapse, and more growth.^[106] Moreover, he believed that in the long-term this process would necessarily enrich and empower the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat.^[106]^[120] In section one of The Communist Manifesto Marx describes feudalism, capitalism, and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:

We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged ... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes ... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property.

—Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto^[141]

Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-capitalistic, communist society:

The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable."

—Karl Marx and Frederic Engels, The Communist Manifesto^[141]

Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop a class consciousness, in time realising that they have to change the system.^[117]^[120] Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing exploiting class, and introduce a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.^[117] Marx argued that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class:

Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence."

—Karl Marx, The German Ideology^[142]

In this new society the self-alienation would end, and humans would be free to act without being bound by the labour market.^[106] It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.^[120] In such a utopian world there would also be little if any need for a state, which goal was to enforce the alienation.^[106] He theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, a dictatorship of the proletariat—a period where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production—would exist.^[120] As he wrote in his "Critique of the Gotha Program", "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat."^[143] While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures (such as Britain, the US and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries with strong centralised state-oriented traditions, like France and Germany, the "lever of our revolution must be force."^[144]

Personal life

Jenny Carolina and Jenny Laura Marx (1869). All the Marx daughters were named in honour of their mother, Jenny von Westphalen

Marx married Jenny von Westphalen in 1843. Together had seven children, but partly owing to the poor living conditions they were forced to live in whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.^[145] The children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844–83); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–52); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–98) and one more who died before being named (July 1857). There are allegations that Marx also fathered a son, Freddy,^[30] out of wedlock by his housekeeper, Helene Demuth.^[146]

Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he used that of 'Monsieur Ramboz', whilst in London he signed off his letters as 'A. Williams'. His friends referred to him as 'Moor', owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, something which they believed made him resemble the historical Moors of North Africa, whilst he encouraged his children to call him 'Old Nick' and 'Charley'.^[147] He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring to Friedrich Engels as 'General', his housekeeper Helene as 'Lenchen' or 'Nym', while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as 'Qui Qui, Emperor of China' and another, Laura, was known as 'Kakadou' or 'the Hottentot'.^[147]

Legacy

Influence

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels monument in Marx-Engels-Forum, Berlin-Mitte

Marx is widely thought of as one of the most influential thinkers in history, who has had a significant influence on both world politics and intellectual thought, and in a 1999 BBC poll was voted the top "thinker of the millennium".^[11]^[12]^[8] Robert C. Tucker credits Marx with profoundly affecting ideas about history, society, economics, culture, politics, and the nature of social inquiry.^[148] Marx's biographer Francis Wheen considers the "history of the twentieth century" to be "Marx's legacy",^[149] whilst philosopher Peter Singer believes that Marx's impact can be compared with that of the founders of the two major world religions, Jesus Christ and Muhammad.^[150] Singer notes that "Marx's ideas brought about modern sociology, transformed the study of history, and profoundly affected philosophy, literature and the arts."^[150] Paul Ricœur calls Marx one of the masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud.^[151] Philip Stokes says that Marx's ideas led to him becoming "the darling of both European and American intellectuals up until the 1960s".^[152] Marx has influenced disciplines such as archaeology, anthropology,^[153] media studies,^[154] political science, theater, history, sociological theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.^[155]

In July 2005, 27.9% of listeners in a BBC Radio 4 series In Our Time poll selected Marx as their favorite thinker.^[156]

The reasons for Marx's widespread influence revolve around his ethical message; a "morally empowering language of critique" against the dominant capitalist society. No other body of work was so relevant to the modern times, and at the same time, so outspoken about the need for change.^[8] In the political realm, Marx's ideas led to the establishment of governments using Marxist thought to replace capitalism with communism or socialism (or augment it with market socialism) across much of the world, whilst his intellectual thought has heavily influenced the academic study of the humanities and the arts.

Marxism

Main article: Marxism

A Karl Marx monument in the German city Chemnitz, formerly the East German city Karl-Marx-Stadt (Karl Marx City)

Followers of Marx have drawn on his work to propose grand, cohesive theoretical outlooks dubbed "Marxism". This body of works has had significant influence on the both political and scientific scenes.^[157] The Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara summed up his own appeal to Marxism by stating that "the merit of Marx is that he suddenly produces a qualitative change in the history of social thought. He interprets history, understands its dynamic, predicts the future, but in addition to predicting it, he expresses a revolutionary concept: the world must not only be interpreted, it must be transformed."^[158]

Nevertheless, Marxists have frequently debated amongst themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and how to apply his concepts to their contemporary events and conditions.^[157] The legacy of Marx's thought has become bitterly contested between numerous tendencies which each see themselves as Marx's most accurate interpreters, including (but not limited to) Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxemburgism, and libertarian Marxism.^[157] In academic Marxism, various currents have developed as well, often under influence of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical Marxism, phenomenological Marxism, Analytical Marxism and Hegelian Marxism.^[157]

Moreover, there is a distinction between "Marxism" and "what Marx believed"; for example, shortly before he died in 1883, Marx wrote a letter to the French workers' leader Jules Guesde, and to his own son-in-law Paul Lafargue, accusing them of "revolutionary phrase-mongering" and of lack of faith in the working class. After the French party split into a reformist and revolutionary party, some accused Guesde (leader of the latter) of taking orders from Marx; Marx remarked to Lafargue, "What is certain to me is [that, if this is Marxism, then] I myself am not [a] Marxist" (in a letter to Engels, Marx later accused Guesde of being a "Bakuninist").^[159]

Founder of social science

Marx is typically cited, along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science.^[10] In contrast to philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the scientific method.^[8] Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the philosophies of history and science. Whilst Marx, working in the Hegelian tradition, rejected Comtean sociological positivism, in attempting to develop a science of society he nevertheless came to be recognised as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning.^[42] In modern sociological theory, Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title."^[160]

Debate over predictions and theories

While many Marxist concepts are still of importance for modern social science, some specific predictions Marx made have been shown to be unlikely.^[8] Marx is often criticised for expecting a wave of socialist revolutions, originating in the most highly industrialised countries,^[161] to overturn capitalism. However others, pointing to Marx's encounter with late 19th-century Russian populism and Marx and Engels's preface to the second Russian edition of the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1882), have argued that Marx evinced a growing conviction in his late writings that revolution could in fact emerge first in Russia.^[162] Marx predicted the eventual fall of capitalism, to be replaced by socialism, yet since the late 20th century state socialism is in retreat, as the Soviet Union collapsed, and the People's Republic of China shifted towards a market economy.^[163] Additionally, his argument that profits are generated only through surplus labour has been challenged by the counterclaim that profits also come from investments in human capital and technology.^[8] Marx correctly predicted that over time, inequality would grow^[164] but he also believed that this would mean growing impoverishment of the growing worker class, increasingly exploited by the capitalists.^[8] The latter has also come true; as in the developed world, through liberal reforms, trade unions won many concessions, improving the situation of the workers (something that Marx considered very unlikely); in the more populated parts of the world such as Africa, India, and China the populations continue to grow and all the industry is moving there if it has not already established itself in the last two decades. Worldwide poverty has increased since the end of the 19th century especially considering that the richest are richer than ever but the poor have remained at the same level and the percentage has risen in the last 30 years.^[8]^[165]^[166]^[167] (Scholars have debated whether Marx's comments about the proletariat can be analyzed in the context of the working class).^[168] In addition to specific predictions, certain of Marx's theories, such as his labour theory of value, have also been criticised.^[4]^[118] However, in the wake of the economic crisis of 2008, Greek government debt crisis,2008–2012 Spanish financial crisis and European sovereign debt crisis some thinkers like Terry Eagleton, David Harvey, and David McNally have given renewed impetus to the debate on whether Marx was right that capitalism inherently tends towards crisis (which Marx discussed as the "contradictions of capital").^[169]

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Totalitarianism

100 Mark der DDR note used in the German Democratic Republic. 100-Mark banknotes with Marx's portrait circulated from 1964 until monetary union with West Germany in July 1990.

While Marxist thought may be used to empower marginalised and dispossessed people, it has also been used to prop up governments who have utilised violence to remove those seen as impeding the revolution.^[8]^[118] In some instances, his ultimate goals have been used as justification for the end justifies the means logic.^[8] Moreover, contrary to his goal, his ideas have been used to promote dogmatism and intolerance.^[8] Polish historian Andrzej Walicki noted that Marx's and Engels's theory was the "theory of freedom", but a theory that, at the height of its influence, was used to legitimise the totalitarian socialist state of the Soviet Union.^[170] This abuse of Marx's thought is perhaps most clearly exemplified in Stalinist Marxism, described by critics as the "most widespread and successful form of mass indoctrination... a masterly achievement in transforming Marxism into the official ideology of a consistently totalitarian state."^[171] The controversy is further fueled as some left-wing theorists have tried to shield Marxism from any connection to the Soviet regime.^[172] Lastly, the undue focus on the Marxist thought in the former Eastern Bloc, often forbidding social science arguments from outside the Marxist perspective,^[173]^[174] led to a backlash against Marxism after the revolutions of 1989. In one example, references to Marx drastically decreased in Polish sociology after the fall of the revolutionary socialist governments, and two major research institutions which advocated the Marxist approach to sociology were closed.^[175]

Selected bibliography

The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law (1842)
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, 1843
On the Jewish Question, 1843
Notes on James Mill, 1844
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, 1844
The Holy Family, 1845
Theses on Feuerbach, 1845
The German Ideology, 1845
The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847
Wage Labour and Capital, 1847
Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848
The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, 1852
Grundrisse, 1857
A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1859
Writings on the U.S. Civil War, 1861
Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes, 1862
Value, Price and Profit, 1865
Capital, Volume I (Das Kapital), 1867
The Civil War in France, 1871
Critique of the Gotha Program, 1875
Notes on Wagner, 1883
Capital, Volume II (posthumously published by Engels), 1885
Capital, Volume III (posthumously published by Engels), 1894

References

Footnotes

^ Mehring, Franz, Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003) pg. 75
^ John Bellamy Foster. "Marx's Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 105, No. 2 (September 1999), pp. 366-405.
^ Allen Oakley, Marx's Critique of Political Economy: 1844 to 1860, Routledge, 1984, p. 51.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v "Karl Marx – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy". http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/. . First published Tue 26 Aug 2003; substantive revision Mon 14 Jun 2010. Accessed 4 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
^ Karl Marx: Critique of the Gotha Program (Marx/Engels Selected Works, Volume Three, pp. 13–30;)
^ In Letter from Karl Marx to Joseph Weydemeyer (MECW Volume 39, p. 58; )
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA23. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Wheen, Francis (2002). Karl Marx: A Life. New York: Norton. Introduction.
^ ^a ^b "Max Weber – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy". http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/.
^ ^a ^b "Marx the millennium's 'greatest thinker'". BBC News World Online. 1 October 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/461545.stm. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ ^a ^b Hart, Michael H. (2000). The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. New York: Citadel. ISBN 0-89104-175-3.
^ Wheen 2001 p. 8 and p. 12
^ Kenneth Allan; Kenneth D. Allan (2 November 2005). Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World. Pine Forge Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4129-0572-5.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 07–09, 12.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 10.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 11.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 12.
^ Francis Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3
^ Enzo Traverso, The Marxists and the Jewish Question, (Humanities Press, 1994): "Born into a Jewish family that had converted to Lutheranism, Marx received no religious education and grew up, under the influence of his father, in a liberal and aufklärerisch environment. He considered himself a German, an atheist and a Communist and recognized himself as neither a Jew nor a converted Jew" (p14)
^ The famous Marxist historian and historiographer Eric Hobsbawm views Marx simply as a Jew, for example, in this October 2005 essay on the "Benefits of Diaspora" in the London Review of Books, in which he states "issues to do with the nature, structure and possible transformations of society in an era of radical historical change both in practice and in theory have attracted emancipated Jews disproportionately almost from the beginning, starting with the Saint Simonians and Marx".
^ Julius Carlbach's Karl Marx and the Jewish Question has an interesting discussion of "The Jewishness of Marx" staring on page 310, in which he describes the views of a large number of sources. See also Dennis K. Fischman's 1991 work Political Discourse in Exile: Karl Marx and the Jewish Question.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 13.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 13.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 14.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 15.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 16.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 16–17.
^ ^a ^b ^c Appelrouth, Scott; Laura Desfor Edles (2007). Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings. Pine Forge Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7619-2793-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c Montefiore, Simon Sebag. "The Means of Reproduction". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
^ Tristram Hunt (3 August 2010). Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels. Macmillan. pp. 59–61. ISBN 978-0-8050-9248-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Mdj3AXU2YEEC&pg=PA59. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 17–21, 33.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 52–53.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 21–22.
^ Lewis S. Feuer; Irving Horowitz (1 June 2010). Ideology and the Ideologists. Transaction Publishers. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4128-1442-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC&pg=PA76. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 34.
^ Stanley Edgar Hyman (March 1974). The tangled bank: Darwin, Marx, Frazer and Freud as imaginative writers. Atheneum. p. 86. http://books.google.com/books?id=f0pmAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
^ Robert Payne, The Unknown Karl Marx, (University Press, 1971)
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 25–26.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 32.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 33.
^ ^a ^b Calhoun 2002. p. 19.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 34–36.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 42–44.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 47.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 47–48.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 36.
^ Kenneth L. Morrison (21 July 2006). Marx, Durkheim, Weber: formations of modern social thought. SAGE. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7619-7056-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-sya6fxO6zgC&pg=PA35. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 48.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 62–66.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 64–65.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 65.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 75.
^ Mansel, Philip: Paris Between Empires, p.390 (St. Martin Press, NY) 2001
^ ^a ^b ^c T. B. Bottomore (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist thought. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA108. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 85–86.
^ ^a ^b Several authors elucidated this for long neglected crucial turn in Marx's theoretical development, such as Ernie Thomson in The Discovery of the Materialist Conception of History in the Writings of the Young Karl Marx, New York, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004; for a short account see Max Stirner, a durable dissident
^ Doug Lorimer, in Friedrich Engels (1999). Socialism: utopian and scientific. Resistance Books. pp. 34–36. ISBN 978-0-909196-86-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_A7P0fL_kYsC&pg=PA34. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 66–67.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 112.
^ Charles Capper; Cristina Giorcelli; Lester K. Little (9 November 2007). Margaret Fuller: transatlantic crossings in a revolutionary age. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-299-22340-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=LehjT5N5yQwC&pg=PA18. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Wheen 2001. p. 90.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 92.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 93.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 107.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 115.
^ ^a ^b Karl Marx (1950). Communist Manifesto. eBookEden.com. p. 4. GGKEY:FWW90PP07L2. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZZuDP8hGg5IC&pg=PT4. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
^ Marx and Engels 1848.
^ ^a ^b Wheen 2001. p. 125.
^ ^a ^b Maltsev; Yuri N.. Requiem for Marx. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-61016-116-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC&pg=PA93. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Saul Kussiel Padover, Karl Marx, an intimate biography, McGraw-Hill, 1978, page 205
^ ^a ^b Wheen 2001. pp. 126–127.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 126–127.
^ David McLellan 1973 Karl Marx: His life and Thought. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190
^ Felix, David (1982). "Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician". Central European History (Cambridge University Press) 15 (4): 332–350. DOI:10.1017/S0008938900010621. JSTOR 4545968.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 128.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 129.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 130–132.
^ Seigel, p. 50
^ ^a ^b Doug Lorimer. Introduction. In Karl Marx. The Class Struggles in France: From the February Revolution to the Paris Commune. Resistance Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-876646-19-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=xlYfFDJDXewC&pg=PA6. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b Wheen 2001. pp. 136–137.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Boris Nicolaievsky (15 March 2007). Karl Marx – Man and Fighter. READ BOOKS. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Slavko Splichal (2002). Principles of publicity and press freedom. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-7425-1615-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=u8fO_b0lxDAC&pg=PA115. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b Franz Mehring (24 September 2003). Karl Marx: The Story of His Life. Psychology Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-415-31333-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=486z9lE-jdsC&pg=PR19. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 137–146.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 147–148.
^ Peter Watson (22 June 2010). The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century. HarperCollins. pp. 250–. ISBN 978-0-06-076022-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=lktG_12nBXEC&pg=PA250. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. pp. 151–155.
^ Phil Harriss (1 September 2006). London Markets, 4th. New Holland Publishers. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-86011-306-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=zv6GxJzhrbgC&pg=PA20. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
^ Enrique D. Dussel; Fred Moseley (2001). Towards an unknown Marx: a commentary on the manuscripts of 1861–63. Psychology Press. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-0-415-21545-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-Ld9fM0DOYQC&pg=PR33. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography". Egs.edu. http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Karl, Marx (2007). James Ledbetter. ed. Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-144192-4.
^ Karl Marx (30 March 2008). The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Wildside Press LLC. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-4344-6374-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=ryOVzGSq0zYC&pg=PA141. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ John Cunningham Wood. Karl Marx's economics : critical assessments. Psychology Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-415-06558-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Pr97rppN2EC&pg=PA346. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c John Cunningham Wood (1993). Karl Marx's economics: critical assessments : second series. Taylor & Francis. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-415-08711-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=zoNIh_NYeRwC&pg=PA232. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b Sidney Hook (February 1994). From Hegel to Marx: studies in the intellectual development of Karl Marx. Columbia University Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-231-09665-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=JXQ_cwiMhAUC&pg=PR24. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b Ronald John Johnston (2000). The dictionary of human geography. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 795. ISBN 978-0-631-20561-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=0-GxowMfwlkC&pg=PA795%7Caccessdate%3D16+March+2011%7Cyear%3D2000%7Cpublisher%3DWiley-Blackwell%7Cisbn%3D978-0-631-20561-6%7Cpages%3D795%E2%80%93%7D%7D%3C%2Fref%3E. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
^ Richard T. De George; James Patrick Scanlan (31 December 1975). Marxism and religion in Eastern Europe: papers presented at the Banff International Slavic Conference, September 4–7, 1974. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-90-277-0636-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=gO_mQQU8-GIC&pg=PA20. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
^ Boris Nicolaievsky (15 March 2007). Karl Marx – Man and Fighter. READ BOOKS. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Bob Jessop; Russell Wheatley (1999). Karl Marx's social and political thought. Taylor & Francis US. p. 526. ISBN 978-0-415-19327-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=vz-4LDWCnlAC&pg=PA526. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Michael Curtis (1997). Marxism: the inner dialogues. Transaction Publishers. p. 291. ISBN 978-1-56000-945-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=hRdyY2f8UcUC&pg=PA291. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA20. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Mab Segrest (27 June 2002). Born to belonging: writings on spirit and justice. Rutgers University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-8135-3101-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=gOmpSMh3y3YC&pg=PA232. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Tom Rockmore (2002). Marx after Marxism: the philosophy of Karl Marx. John Wiley and Sons. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-631-23189-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=FkMgeGZuCOwC&pg=PA128. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Anthony Brewer; Karl Marx (1984). A guide to Marx's Capital. CUP Archive. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-521-25730-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=RyQ4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA23. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Marx, Karl (1875). "Part I". Critique of the Gotha Program. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works Volume 46 (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.
^ ^a ^b ^c Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works Volume 46 (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 72.
^ K. Marx, First draft of letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels 'Collected Works', Volume 24, p. 346.
^ McLellan 1973, p.541
^ Wheen 2001. p. 382.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Stephen Jay Gould; Paul McGarr; Steven Peter Russell Rose (24 April 2007). The richness of life: the essential Stephen Jay Gould. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 167–168. ISBN 978-0-393-06498-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=yfXJhKmp1wUC&pg=PA167. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ "1883: The death of Karl Marx". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
^ "Tomb raiders' failed attack on Marx grave", Camden New Journal
^ Hobsbawm 2011. pp. 03–04.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 20–23. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA20. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Howard J. Sherman (1995). Reinventing marxism. JHU Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8018-5077-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=TTZf31HIJKsC&pg=PA5. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
^ Peter Beilharz (1992). Labour's Utopias: Bolshevism, Fabianism and Social Democracy. CUP Archive. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-415-09680-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=dJc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Barry Stewart Clark (1998). Political economy: a comparative approach. ABC-CLIO. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-0-275-96370-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=3bJHvA1H-2kC&pg=PA57. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
^ Himani Bannerji (2001). Inventing subjects: studies in hegemony, patriarchy and colonialism. Anthem Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-84331-072-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=rQqos58kEPwC&pg=PA27. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
^ Bertell Ollman (1973). Alienation: Marx's conception of man in capitalist society. CUP Archive. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-00-133135-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=8Ac4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b Marx K (1999). "The labour-process and the process of producing surplus-value". In K Marx, Capital (Vol. 1, Ch. 7). Marxists.org. Retrieved 20 October 2010. Original work published 1867.
^ ^a ^b ^c See Marx K (1997). "Critique of Hegel's dialectic and philosophy in general". In K Marx, Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society (LD Easton & KH Guddat, Trans.), pp. 314–347. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Original work published 1844.
^ See also Lefever DM; Lefever JT (1977). "Marxian alienation and economic organisation: An alternate view". The American Economist(21)2, pp. 40–48.
^ ^a ^b See also Holland EW (2005). "Desire". In CJ Stivale (Ed.), Gilles Deleuze: Key Concepts, pp. 53–62. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.
^ ^a ^b Marx (1997), p. 325, emphasis in original.
^ Marx (1997), p. 321, emphasis in original.
^ Marx (1997), p. 324.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA22. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ István Mészáros (1 March 2006). Marx's Theory of Alienation. Merlin Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-85036-554-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=5lckAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ Étienne Balibar (1995). The philosophy of Marx. Verso. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-85984-951-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=HBw-U1tSZoMC&pg=PA56. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ Leszek Kołakowski; Paul Stephen Falla (29 October 2005). Main currents of Marxism: the founders, the golden age, the breakdown. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-393-06054-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=qUCxpznbkaoC&pg=PA226. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ Paul Hernadi (1989). The Rhetoric of interpretation and the interpretation of rhetoric. Duke University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-8223-0934-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=yNGAg_yK6R4C&pg=PA137. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ John B. Thompson (1990). Ideology and modern culture: critical social theory in the era of mass communication. Stanford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-8047-1846-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=ql5Ab8OXiPMC&pg=PA37. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ Karl Marx: Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in: Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, February 1844
^ Karl Marx; Joseph O'Malley (26 August 1977). Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of right'. CUP Archive. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-521-29211-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=uxg4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
^ William H. Swatos; Peter Kivisto (28 February 1998). Encyclopedia of religion and society. Rowman Altamira. pp. 499–. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C&pg=PA499. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Jonathan H. Turner (2 September 2005). Sociology. Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-13-113496-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=90vMAAAACAAJ. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Dennis Gilbert (13 May 2010). The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality. Pine Forge Press. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-1-4129-7965-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=4JyQus8r9JYC&pg=PA6. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848).The Communist Manifesto
^ Jon Elster (31 May 1985). Making sense of Marx. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-29705-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=I14p3dFLerYC&pg=PA217. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
^ "Karl Marx:Critique of the Gotha Programme". http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch04.htm.
^ "You know that the institutions, mores, and traditions of various countries must be taken into consideration, and we do not deny that there are countries – such as America, England, and if I were more familiar with your institutions, I would perhaps also add Holland – where the workers can attain their goal by peaceful means. This being the case, we must also recognise the fact that in most countries on the Continent the lever of our revolution must be force; it is force to which we must some day appeal to erect the rule of labour." La Liberté Speech delivered by Karl Marx on 8 September 1872, in Amsterdam
^ Peter Singer (2000). Marx a very short introduction. pp. 5. ISBN 0-19-285405-4
^ Francis Wheen (2000). Karl Marx. W. W. Norton and Company. p. 173.
^ ^a ^b Wheen 2001. p. 152.
^ Kenneth Allan (11 May 2010). The Social Lens: An Invitation to Social and Sociological Theory. Pine Forge Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4129-7834-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=KEgg5g0d-fgC&pg=PA68. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
^ Wheen 2001. p. 01.
^ ^a ^b Singer 1980. p. 01.
^ Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1970, p. 32
^ Stokes 2004. p. 133.
^ Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) Marxist Approaches in Anthropology, Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 4: pp. 341–70 (October 1975) (doi:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013).
William Roseberry (1997) Marx and Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) (doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25)
^ S. L. Becker (1984) "Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience", Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 1(1): pp. 66–80.
^ See Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen (1987) Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching, Palgrave Macmillan.
^ Wheen, Francis (17 July 2005). "Why Marx is man of the moment". The Observer.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Heine Andersen; Lars Bo Kaspersen (2000). Classical and modern social theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-0-631-21288-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_PeGtsC2Hp4C&pg=PA123. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ "Notes for the Study of the Ideology of the Cuban Revolution" by Che Guevara, 8 October 1960
^ McLellan 1973, p. 443
^ Berlin, Isaiah. 1967. Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. Time Inc Book Division, New York. pp130
^ Robert André LaFleur (2003). China: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. pp. 137–. ISBN 978-1-57607-284-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=RKwqnbWf3u0C&pg=PT137. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ *Foster, John (2000). Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature. New York: Monthly Review Press. pp. 165, 221. *Shanin, Teodor, ed. (1983). Late Marx and the Russian road : Marx and "the peripheries of capitalism" : a case. New York: Monthly Review Press. *Rosemont, Franklin. "Karl Marx and the Iroquois". http://libcom.org/library/karl-marx-iroquois-franklin-rosemont. Retrieved 13 June 2011. *Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1978). Tucker, Robert C.. ed. The Marx-Engels Reader. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 471–2.
^ Shang-Jin Wei. From Marx to Markets: China's Economic Reforms as a Megapolicy. In Dennis A. Rondinelli (1995). Great policies: strategic innovations in Asia and the Pacific Basin. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-275-95050-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=31HHS8S6svkC&pg=PA151. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Unbottled Gini: Inequality is rising. Does it matter—and if so why?, The Economist, 20 Jan 2001
^ Chen, Shaohua; Ravallion, Martin, The developing world is poor and unsuccessful in the fight against poverty, Policy Research working paper, World Bank, 2008
^ Stephen Moore; Julian Lincoln Simon (2000). It's getting better all the time: 100 greatest trends of the last 100 years. Cato Institute. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-882577-96-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=1ixRxAsdLKwC&pg=PA8. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Sylvia Whitman (June 2008). World poverty. Infobase Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8160-6807-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=fk4QHyTMhQkC&pg=PA3. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Hugo Radice, The Prospects for Socialism: A Question of Capital and Class. CSGP 11/1 2011, p.7
^ Eagleton, Terry. "Was Marx Right?". Commonweal. http://commonwealmagazine.org/was-marx-right. Retrieved 14 July 2011. ; Harvey, David (2010). A Companion to Marx's Capital. London and New York: Verso. ; McNally, David (2009). "From Financial Crisis to World-Slump: Accumulation, Financialisation, and the Global Slowdown". Historical Materialism 17 (2): 35–83. DOI:10.1163/156920609X436117.
^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA1. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA426. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA4. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Gwidon Zalejko, Soviet Historiography as a "Normal Science" in Jerzy Topolski (December 1994). Historiography between modernism and postmodernism. Rodopi. p. 179. ISBN 978-90-5183-744-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=oblFZ28X6oIC&pg=PA179. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Marc Ferro (2003). The use and abuse of history, or, How the past is taught to children. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-28592-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=XS1hcDeSne0C&pg. Retrieved 5 March 2011. See Chapter 8 Aspects and variations of Soviet history and Chapter 10 History in profile: Poland.
^ Janusz Mucha and Paweł Załęcki, Sociology – Poland, Social Science Knowledge Base, Country Reports, commentary

Bibliography

Academic and Popular Books

Calhoun, Craig J. (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21347-5.
Callinicos, Alex (2010 [1983]). The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.
Hobsbawm, Eric (2011). How to Change the World: Tales of Marx and Marxism. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-1-4087-0287-1.
Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm.
Singer, Peter (1980). Marx. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287510-5.
Stokes, Philip (2004). Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers. Kettering: Index Books. ISBN 978-0-572-02935-7.
Vygodsky, Vitaly (1973). The Story of a Great Discovery: How Karl Marx wrote "Capital". Verlag Die Wirtschaft. http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygodsky/1965/discovery.htm.
Wheen, Francis (2001). Karl Marx. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-1-85702-637-5.

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Marxism
Part of a series on

Theoretical works The Communist Manifesto A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy Das Kapital The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon Grundrisse The German Ideology Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 Theses on Feuerbach
Social sciences Alienation · Bourgeoisie Base and superstructure Class consciousness Commodity fetishism Exploitation · Human nature Ideology · Proletariat Private property Reification · Cultural hegemony Relations of production Scientific socialism Immiseration
Economics Capitalist mode of production Socialist mode of production Capital accumulation Commodity (Marxism) Marxian economics Communism Economic determinism Labour power · Law of value Means of production Mode of production Perspectives on Capitalism Productive forces Surplus labour · Surplus value Transformation problem Wage labour · Crisis theory
History Marx's theory of history Historical materialism Historical determinism Anarchism and Marxism Capitalist production Class struggle · Socialism Dictatorship of the proletariat Primitive capital accumulation Proletarian revolution Proletarian internationalism World revolution Stateless communism
Philosophy Marxist philosophy Dialectical materialism Philosophy in the Soviet Union Marxist philosophy of nature Council communism Left communism Marxist humanism Marxist feminism Western Marxism Analytical Marxism Libertarian Marxism Marxist autonomism Marxist geography Marxist literary criticism Structural Marxism Situationist International Post-Marxism Young Marx Open Marxism Communization
People Karl Marx · Friedrich Engels Karl Kautsky · Eduard Bernstein James Connolly Georgi Plekhanov · Rosa Luxemburg Vladimir Lenin · Joseph Stalin Leon Trotsky · Che Guevara Mao Zedong · Louis Althusser Georg Lukács · Karl Korsch Antonio Gramsci · Antonie Pannekoek Rudolf Hilferding more
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v t e

(German) Works by Karl Marx at Zeno.org
Karl Marx at Libcom.org
Karl Marx entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Karl Marx on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
Marxists.org, homepage of the Marxists Internet Archive
Works by or about Karl Marx in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Works by Karl Marx in audio format from LibriVox
Works by Karl Marx at Project Gutenberg

Articles and entries

Dead Labour: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered by Paul Craig Roberts
Hegel, Marx, Engels, and the Origins of Marxism, by David North
In Praise of Marx Terry Eagleton synopsising his Why Marx was right chronicle.com 10 April 2011.
Karl Marx: Did he get it all Right? by Philip Collins, The Times, 21 October 2008
Karl Marx, Ernest Mandel
Karl Marx and the Iroquois by Franklin Rosemont
Liberalism, Marxism and The State, by Ralph Raico
Marx, Mao and mathematics: the politics of infinitesimals, by Joseph Dauben
Marx Was Right
Marxism and Ethics from International Socialism Paul Blackledge (2008)
Marxmyths.org Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx
Portraits of Karl Marx (International Institute of Social History)
Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution
The Top Seven Reasons why Marx was Right by Green Left Weekly
Why Marx is the Man of the Moment

v t e The works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Marx	Scorpion and Felix (1837) Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right (1843) On the Jewish Question (1843) Notes on James Mill (1844) Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 (1844) Theses on Feuerbach (1845) The Poverty of Philosophy (1847) Wage-Labor and Capital (1847) The Class Struggles in France, 1848–1850 (1850) The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (1852) Grundrisse (1857) A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes (1862) Value, Price and Profit (1865) Capital, Volume I (Das Kapital) (1867) The Civil War in France (1871) Critique of the Gotha Program (1875) Notes on Wagner (1880) Mathematical Manuscripts of Karl Marx (1968) The Ethnological Notebooks of Karl Marx (1972)

Marx and Engels	The German Ideology (1845) The Holy Family (1845) Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) Writings on the U.S. Civil War (1861) Capital, Volume II [posthumous to Marx, published by Engels] (1885) Capital, Volume III [posthumous to Marx, published by Engels] (1894)

Engels	The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 (1844) The Peasant War in Germany (1850) Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany (1852) Anti-Dühring (1878) Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880) Dialectics of Nature (1883) The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884) Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy (1886)

v t e Schools of economic thought

Pre-modern	Ancient schools Medieval Islamic Scholasticism

Early modern	Mercantilism Physiocrats School of Salamanca

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Related	Economics Heterodox economics History of economic thought History of macroeconomic thought

v t e Social and political philosophy

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v t e Jurisprudence

Legal theory	Critical legal studies Comparative law Economic analysis International legal theory Legal history Philosophy of law Sociology of law

Philosophers	Alexy Allan Amar Aquinas Aristotle Austin Beccaria Bentham Betti Bickel Blackstone Bobbio Bork Castanheira Neves Chafee Coleman Del Vecchio Durkheim Dworkin Ehrlich Feinberg Fineman Finnis Fuller Gardner George Green Grisez Grotius Gurvitch Habermas Han Hand Hart Hayek Hegel Hohfeld Holmes Kant Kelsen Köchler Kramer Llewellyn Luhmann Lyons MacCormick Marx Nussbaum Olivecrona Petrazycki Posner Pound Radbruch Rawls Raz Reinach Renner Savigny Scaevola Schmitt Shang Simmonds Tribe Unger Waldron Weber

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v t e Communism

Basic concepts	Marxist philosophy Marxian economics Historical materialism Surplus value Mode of production Class struggle Classless society Proletarian internationalism Anti-imperialism Workers' self-management World revolution Communist party

Aspects	Communist state Communist party Communist revolution Communist symbolism Communism and religion History of communism

Variants	Marxism Leninism Marxism–Leninism Trotskyism Maoism Luxemburgism Titoism Stalinism Castroism Guevarism Hoxhaism Juche Left communism Council communism Anarchist communism Religious communism Christian communism Eurocommunism World communism Stateless communism National communism Primitive communism Scientific communism List of communist parties

Internationals	Communist League First International Second International Third International Fourth International

Leading individuals	Gracchus Babeuf Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Peter Kropotkin Rosa Luxemburg Karl Liebknecht Antonio Gramsci Vladimir Lenin Leon Trotsky Joseph Stalin Mikhail Gorbachev Mao Zedong Ho Chi Minh Josip Broz Tito Che Guevara Enver Hoxha

Related topics	Communist world Post-communism Anti-communism Criticisms of communism Criticisms of communist party rule Anti-capitalism Cold War Democratic centralism Dictatorship of the proletariat Left-wing politics New Class New Left Workers of the world, unite!

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Authority control: PND: 118578537 | LCCN: n79006935 | VIAF: 49228757 | WorldCat

Persondata
Name	Marx, Karl
Alternative names	Marx, Karl Heinrich
Short description	German philosopher, political economist and revolutionary
Date of birth	1818-5-5
Place of birth	Trier, Prussia
Date of death	1883-3-14
Place of death	London, United Kingdom

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Karl Marx

Karl Heinrich Marx

Karl Marx

Karl Marx

Karl Marx

Karl Heinrich Marx

Karl Marx

Karl Marx

Marx, Karl Heinrich

Marx, Karl

Karl Marx

Karl Marx

Karl Marx

Karl Marx

Biography

Early life: 1818–1835

Hegelianism and early activism: 1836–1843

Paris: 1843–1845

Brussels: 1845–1847

Cologne: 1848–1849

London: 1849–1883

Death

Marx's thought

Inspirations

Philosophy and social thought

Human nature

Labour, class struggle, and false consciousness

Economy, history and society

Personal life

Legacy

Influence

Marxism

Founder of social science

Debate over predictions and theories

Totalitarianism

Selected bibliography

See also

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Bibliography and online texts

Articles and entries