May 1968 in France

For other events in May 1968, see 1968.

A May 1968 poster: "Be young and shut up", with stereotypical silhouette of General de Gaulle

May 1968, referring to the period when the events occurred, saw the largest general strike that ever stopped the economy of an advanced industrial country,^[1] the first wildcat general strike in history,^[1] and a series of student occupation protests. The prolonged strike involved eleven million workers for two weeks in a row,^[1] and its impact was such that it almost caused the collapse of the de Gaulle government of France. Such explosion was provoked by groups in revolt against modern consumer and technical society, embracing left-wing positions that were even more critical of the Stalinist totalitarianism than of the Western capitalism.^[2] The movement contrasted with the labor unions and the Communist Party, which started to side with the de Gaulle government in the goal of containing the revolt.^[1]

Many saw the events as an opportunity to shake up the "old society" and traditional morality, focusing especially on the education system and employment.^{[citation needed]} It began as a long series of student strikes that broke out at a number of universities and lycées in Paris, following confrontations with university administrators and the police. The de Gaulle administration's attempts to quash those strikes by police action only inflamed the situation further, leading to street battles with the police in the Latin Quarter, followed by a general strike by students and strikes throughout France by eleven million French workers, roughly two-thirds of the French workforce. The protests reached such a point that de Gaulle created a military operations headquarters to deal with the unrest, dissolved the National Assembly and called for new parliamentary elections for 23 June 1968.

The government was close to collapse at that point (de Gaulle had even taken temporary refuge at an air force base in Germany), but violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, after a series of deceptions carried out by the Confédération Générale du Travail, the leftist union federation, and the Parti Communiste Français (PCF), the French Communist Party. When the elections were finally held in June, the Gaullist party emerged even stronger than before.

May '68 was a political failure for the protesters, but it had an enormous social impact. In France, it is considered to be the watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted towards a more liberal moral ideal (equality, sexual liberation, human rights) that today better describes French society, in theory if not in practice.^{[citation needed]} Although this change did not take place solely in this one month, the term mai 68 is used to refer to this general shift in principles, especially when referring to its most idealistic aspects.

The events before May

On 22 March far-left groups and a small number of prominent poets and musicians, along with 150 students, occupied an administration building at Nanterre University and held a meeting in the university council room dealing with class discrimination in French society and the political bureaucracy that controlled the school's funding.

The school's administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the students left the building without any trouble. After this first record, some leaders of what was named the "Movement of 22 March" were called together by the disciplinary committee of the university.

The events of May

Following months of conflicts between students and authorities at the University of Paris at Nanterre, the administration shut down that university on 2 May 1968. Students at the University of the Sorbonne in Paris met on 3 May to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. On Monday, 6 May, the national student union, the UNEF - still the largest student union in France today - and the union of university teachers called a march to protest against the police invasion of the Sorbonne. More than 20,000 students, teachers and supporters marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to create barricades out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones, forcing the police to retreat for a time. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again. Hundreds more students were arrested.

High school student unions spoke in support of the riots on 6 May. The next day, they joined the students, teachers and increasing numbers of young workers who gathered at the Arc de Triomphe to demand that: (1) all criminal charges against arrested students be dropped, (2) the police leave the university, and (3) the authorities reopen Nanterre and the Sorbonne. Negotiations broke down after students returned to their campuses, after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover the police still occupying the schools. The students now had a near revolutionary fervor.

On Friday, 10 May, another huge crowd congregated on the Rive Gauche. When the riot police again blocked them from crossing the river, the crowd again threw up barricades, which the police then attacked at 2:15 in the morning after negotiations once again foundered. The confrontation, which produced hundreds of arrests and injuries, lasted until dawn of the following day. The events were broadcast on radio as they occurred and the aftermath was shown on television the following day. Allegations were made that the police had participated, through agents provocateurs, in the riots, by burning cars and throwing molotov cocktails ^[3].

The government's heavy-handed reaction brought on a wave of sympathy for the strikers. Many of the nation's more mainstream singers and poets joined after the heavy-handed police brutality came to light. American artists also began voicing support of the strikers. The Parti Communiste Français (PCF) reluctantly supported the students, whom it regarded as adventurers and anarchists, and the major left union federations, the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) and the Force Ouvrière (CGT-FO), called a one-day general strike and demonstration for Monday, 13 May.

Well over a million people marched through Paris on that day; the police stayed largely out of sight. Prime Minister Georges Pompidou personally announced the release of the prisoners and the reopening of the Sorbonne. However, the surge of strikes did not recede. In fact, the protesters got even more enraged.

When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous "people's university". Approximately 401 popular action committees were set up in Paris, including the Occupation Committee of the Sorbonne, and elsewhere in the weeks that followed to take up grievances against the government and French society.

In the following days, workers began occupying factories, starting with a sit-down strike at the Sud Aviation plant near the city of Nantes on 14 May, then another strike at a Renault parts plant near Rouen, which spread to the Renault manufacturing complexes at Flins in the Seine Valley and the Paris suburb of Boulogne-Billancourt. By 16 May, workers had occupied roughly fifty factories, and by 17 May, 200,000 were on strike. That figure snowballed to two million workers on strike the following day and then ten million, or roughly two-thirds of the French workforce, on strike the following week.

These strikes were not led by the union movement; on the contrary, the CGT tried to contain this spontaneous outbreak of militancy by channeling it into a struggle for higher wages and other economic demands. Workers put forward a broader, more political and more radical agenda, demanding the ousting of the government and President de Gaulle and attempting, in some cases, to run their factories. When the trade union leadership negotiated a 35% increase in the minimum wage, a 7% wage increase for other workers, and half normal pay for the time on strike with the major employers' associations, the workers occupying their factories refused to return to work and jeered their union leaders.

On 25 May and 26 May, the Grenelle agreements were signed at the Ministry of Social Affairs. They provided for an increase of the minimum wage by 25% and of the average salaries by 10%. These offers were rejected, and the strike went on. The working class and top intellectuals were joining in solidarity for a major change in workers' rights.

On 27 May, the meeting of the Union Nationale des Étudiants de France (National Union of the Students of France), the most outstanding of the events of May 1968, proceeded and gathered 30,000 to 50,000 people in the Stade Sebastien Charlety. The meeting was extremely militant with speakers demanding the government be overthrown and elections held.

On 30 May, several hundred thousand protesters (400,000 to 500,000—much more than the 50,000 the police were expecting) led by the CGT marched through Paris, chanting, "Adieu, de Gaulle!" (Meaning: "Farewell, De Gaulle.")

While the government appeared to be close to collapse, de Gaulle remained firm, though he had to go into hiding. After ensuring that he had sufficient loyal military units mobilized to back him if push came to shove, he went on the radio the following day (the national television service was on strike) to announce the dissolution of the National Assembly, with elections to follow on 23 June. He ordered workers to return to work, threatening to institute a state of emergency if they did not.

Events of June and July

From that point, the revolutionary feeling of the students and workers faded away. Workers gradually returned to work or were ousted from their plants by the police. The national student union called off street demonstrations. The government banned a number of leftist organizations. The police retook the Sorbonne on 16 June. De Gaulle triumphed in the legislative elections held in June, and the crisis came to an end. Bastille Day saw resurgent street demonstrations in the Latin Quarter, led by red arm-band leftist and black arm-band anarchist students, resulting in much bloodshed among many students and tourists there for the evening's festivities, caused by brutal repression by the Paris police and the CRS starting around 10pm and continuing through the night, on the streets, in police vans, at police stations, and in hospitals where many wounded were taken. No charges were filed against police or demonstrators, but the UK and West Germany filed formal protests, including for the indecent assault of two English school-girls by police in a police station.

Slogans and graffiti

It is difficult to identify precisely the politics of the students who sparked the events of May 1968, much less of the hundreds of thousands who participated in them. There was, however, a strong strain of anarchism, particularly in the students at Nanterre. While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the millenarian and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers (the anti-work graffiti shows the considerable influence of the Situationist movement).^{[citation needed]}

• Boredom is counterrevolutionary
• We don’t want a world where the guarantee of not dying of starvation brings the risk of dying of boredom.
• In a society that has abolished every kind of adventure the only adventure that remains is to abolish the society.
• Those who make revolutions half way only dig their own graves.
• Run, comrade, the old world is behind you!
• We will ask nothing. We will demand nothing. We will take, occupy.
• When the National Assembly becomes a bourgeois theater, all the bourgeois theaters should be turned into national assemblies. (Written above the entrance of the occupied Odéon Theater)
• Warning: ambitious careerists may now be disguised as “progressives.”
• Stalinists, your children are with us!
• Be cruel.
• A single nonrevolutionary weekend is infinitely more bloody than a month of total revolution.
• Under the paving stones, the beach.
• Live without dead time.
• Be realistic, demand the impossible.
• If God existed it would be necessary to abolish him.
• I love you!!! Oh, say it with paving stones!!!^[4]

References in popular culture

Film

• René Viénet's 1973 film Can dialectics break bricks? dealt with the concepts surrounding May 1968, parodying the events within the narrative.
• Guy Debord's 1973 film The Society of the Spectacle dealt with the motivations around the events of May 1968. The film also contains large amounts of archival footage of the events.
• Chris Marker's 1977 film A Grin Without a Cat^IMDb is a three-hour-long film documentary portraying the history behind the social unrests of the sixties. Made with archival images, it deals with May 1968 in depth.
• Milou in May is a 1990 film by Louis Malle which portrays the impact of revolutionary fervour on a French village.
• Bernardo Bertolucci's 2003 film The Dreamers is about three young students and their experiences in May 1968, although it features the events mainly as a backdrop and not predominantly within the primary plot.
• Roman Coppola's 2001 film CQ depicts the Paris film-making world of the late 1960s and makes repeated reference to the events of May 1968.
• Philippe Garrel's 2005 film Les Amants Réguliers^IMDb ("the regular lovers") is a three-hour-long rejoinder to The Dreamers that portrays the May 1968 events through the eyes of a group of young artists who grow increasingly absorbed in a world of drugs and free love upon what they see as the failure of the May 1968 events.
• Jean Luc Godard's film La Chinoise portrays the ideas of a small group of students on the eve of the May 1968 events, while his "Tout Va Bien"^imdb portrays attitudes four years after the May movement.

Literature

• Robert Merle's book Derrière la vitre is a novel set in the May 1968 events.
• Rocío Durán Barba's book Tengo algo que decir: 1968-2008 is a novel about this revolution and the consequences of the movement.
• Alfredo Bryce Echenique's book La vida exagerada de Martín Romaña has a few chapters surrounding the events of May 1968.
• The Merry Month of May is James Jones's 1971 novel concerning the 1968 events in Paris. It is centered around a rich American family, the Gallaghers, living as expatriates in Paris.
• Mavis Gallant wrote two essays covering the May 1968 events for The New Yorker. Entitled "The Events in May: A Paris Notebook", Parts I and II have been anthologized in her essay collection Paris Notebooks: Essays and Reviews.

Music

• The Rolling Stones' song "Street Fighting Man" was heavily influenced by the student riots.^[5]
• Vangelis released an LP, dubbed a poème symphonique, entitled Fais Que Ton Rêve Soit Plus Long Que La Nuit, which was a musique concrète/folk recording collage reflecting the May 1968 strikes. Vangelis was in Paris at the time recording with Aphrodite's Child.
• The video for Röyksopp's single "Only This Moment" depicts events from the May 1968 riots.
• Renaud wrote the song "Crève Salope" during the protests, and it became a favourite of the protesters.

See also

• French civil unrest of 2005
• 2006 labor protests in France
• Anarchism in France
• Autonomism
• Enragés
• May 68, Philosophy is in the Street!, a book written by Vincent Cespedes
• On the Poverty of Student Life

Further reading

• Adair, Gilbert. The Holy Innocents (novel).
• Castoriadis, Cornelius with Claude Lefort and Edgar Morin. Mai 1968: la brèche.
• Cliff, Tony and Ian Birchall. France – the struggle goes on.^[6]
• Cohn-Bendit, Daniel. Obsolete Communism: The Left-Wing Alternative.
• Dark Star Collective. Beneath the Paving Stones: Situationists and the Beach, May 68.
• Feenberg, Andrew and Jim Freedman. When Poetry Ruled the Streets.
• Ferlinghetti, Lawrence. Love in the Days of Rage (novel).
• Gregoire, Roger and Perlman, Fredy. Worker-Student Action Committees: France May '68.^[7]
• Jones, James. The Merry Month of May (novel).
• Knabb, Ken. Situationist International Anthology.
• Kurlansky, Mark. 1968: The Year That Rocked The World.
• Marcus, Greil. Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the 20th Century.
• Emile Perreau-Saussine, "Liquider mai 68?", in Les droites en France (1789-2008), CNRS Editions, 2008, p. 61-68[1]
• Plant, Sadie. The Most Radical Gesture: The Situationist International in a Postmodern Age.
• Quattrochi, Angelo and Nairn, Tom. The Beginning of the End.
• Ross, Kristin. May '68 and its Afterlives.
• Seale, Patrick and Maureen McConville. Red Flag/Black Flag: French Revolution 1968.
• Singer, Daniel. Prelude To Revolution: France In May 1968.
• Touraine, Alain. The May Movement: Revolt and Reform.

References

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External links

• May 1968: 40 Years Later, City Journal, Spring 2008
• Maurice Brinton: Paris May 1968
• Posters from May 1968 (French)
• More Posters from May 1968
• Picture gallery
• Pictures of May 1968 in Paris by Jean-Claude Seine (French)
• May 1968, Essex students revolt
• May Events Archive of Documents
• May 68 : A Contested History, Chris Reynolds, Sens Public Review
• May 68, the revolution in pictures Pictures and sounds of the revolution, in France and in the whole world
• Marking the French Social Revolution of 1968, an NPR audio report
• Barricades of May ’68 Still Divide the French New York Times
• Situationist International Online
• 1968 Revolution