pesticide

A chemical used to kill pests, especially insects.

Background

The word "pesticide" is a broad term that refers to any device, method, or chemical that kills plants or animals that compete for humanity's food supply or are otherwise undesirable. Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, nematocides (used to kill nematodes, elongated cylindrical worms), and rodenticides. Of these various pesticides, insecticides have a longer and more noteworthy history, perhaps because the number of insects labeled "pests" greatly exceeds the number of all other plant and animal "pests" combined. Hence, this article focuses on the use of agricultural insecticides.

Since they first began cultivating crops (around 7000 B.C.) if not before, humans have devised methods to prevent insects from eating or otherwise destroying precious crops. Some cultures relied on the practice of planting during certain phases of the moon. Other early agricultural practices that indirectly kept insect populations low were rotating crops; planting small, varied crops; and selecting naturally resistant plants. People picked bugs off plants by hand and made noise to ward off grasshoppers. Chemicals were also used early on. The crushed petals of the pyrethrum (a type of chrysanthemum), sulfur, and arsenic were used in the Middle East, Rome, and China, respectively. The Chinese also used natural predators such as ants to eat undesirable insects.

All attempts at pest control were pretty much individual affairs until the 1840s, when a North American fungus called powdery mildew invaded Britain, and the epidemic was controlled with large-scale applications of sulfur. The Colorado beetle in the western United States was the next target: by 1877 western settlers had learned to protect their potato crop by using water-insoluble chemicals such as paris green. Other pesticides such as derria, quassia, and tar oil followed, but nineteenth-century pesticides were weak. They had to be supplemented by introducing natural predators, or, in some cases, by grafting threatened plants onto more resistant rootstock.

By World War II, only about 30 pesticides existed. Research during the war yielded DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane), which had been synthesized in 1874 but wasn't recognized as an insecticide until 1942. Other strong pesticides soon followed, such as chlordane in 1945 and endrin in 1951. Poison gas research in Germany yielded the organophosphorus compounds, the best known of which is parathion. These new pesticides were very strong. Further research yielded hundreds of organophosphorus compounds, the most noteworthy being malathion, which was recently used in California against the medfly.

Until the 1800s, when people began to spray personal gardens using fairly large machines, pesticides were generally applied by hand. Airplanes were not used until the 1920s, and slow, well-controlled, low-level flights were not implemented until the 1950s. The first aerial spraying of synthetic pesticides used large amounts of inert materials, 4000 liters per hectare (a hectare equals 2.47 acres). This quantity was rapidly reduced to 100 to 200 liters/hectare, and by the 1970s the amount had been reduced (in some cases) to .3 liters per hectare of the ingredient itself (for example, malathion) applied directly to the fields.

Today, some 900 active chemical pesticides are used to manufacture 40,000 commercial preparations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that the use of pesticides doubled between 1960 and 1980. Currently, over 372 million kilograms a year are used in the United States, with over 1.8 billion kilograms a year used worldwide.

Raw Materials

A pesticide consists of an active ingredient coupled with inert ingredients. The active ingredient kills the pests, while the inert ingredients facilitate spraying and coating the target plant; they can also contribute other advantages that are not conferred by the active ingredient alone.

Active ingredients were once distilled from natural substances; now they are largely synthesized in a laboratory. Almost all are hydrocarbons derived from petroleum. Most pesticides contain other elements, the type and number of which depend on the pesticide desired. Chlorine, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, and bromine are most common. Inert ingredients can be many substances, dependent on the type of pesticide. Liquid pesticides have traditionally used kerosene or some other petroleum distillate as a carrier, though water has recently begun to replace kerosene. Emulsifiers (such as soap) are also added to distribute the active ingredient evenly throughout the solvent. A powder or dust pesticide will typically contain vegetable matter such as ground up nut shells or corn cobs, clays such as diatomite or attapulgite, or powdered minerals such as talc or calcium carbonate as a base. To cause the pesticide to adhere better to the plant or soil, a material such as cornstarch or flour may be added.

The Manufacturing
Process

Manufacturing a pesticide involves at least three separate activities. The active ingredient is first synthesized in a chemical factory, then formulated in the same place or sent to a formulator, who prepares the liquid or powder form. The pesticide is then sent to the farmer or other certified applicator, who dilutes it before applying it to the fields.

Synthesizing the pesticide

• When a new pesticide is first developed, it is manufactured on a small scale in a laboratory. If the substance proves viable, production begins in the factory. Batch or continuous manufacturing insures a high volume, perhaps as much as 500 kilograms per cycle. Synthesizing a pesticide is a complex chemical procedure that requires trained chemists and a large, sophisticated laboratory. The basic procedure entails altering an organic molecule to form a pesticide. This may involve any of a number of specific reagents and catalysts and often must take place in a controlled climate (within a certain temperature range, for example). Once synthesized, the active ingredient is packaged and sent to a formulator. Liquid insecticides can be shipped in tank trucks or 200-liter drums. Transport of the active ingredient follows all regulations for hazardous materials transportation.

Formulating the pesticide

• A formulator accepts the active ingredient, measures out the proper amount, mixes it with carrier if it is to be a liquid pesticide or with inert powders or dry fertilizers if it is to be a dust pesticide, then bottles or packages it. Liquid pesticides are packaged in 200-liter drums if a large-scale farmer is the anticipated customer or 20-liter jugs for small-scale operations. Dry formulations can be packaged in 5 to 10 kilogram plastic or plastic-lined bags. An emulsified formulation is usually concentrated to render transport easier (the active ingredient typically makes up 50 percent of the emulsified concentrate), but granulated and dry pesticides are ready to use.

Diluting the pesticide

• The pesticide might be stored a short time before it is requested. When it is ready for transport, the estimated necessary amount is sent to the farmer, who dilutes the emulsified concentrate to create the amount of pesticide desired. In most instances, the final product consists of only .5 to 1 percent of the original active ingredient. The pesticide is now ready to be applied.

Applying the pesticide

• There are several ways to apply a pesticide. The method with which Americans are most familiar is crop dusting, though its use is generally limited to large, flat areas. A plane loaded with 2000-liter (or larger) tanks flies over a field and sprays out the pesticide from booms. Booms are long, horizontal rods from which several sprinklers spray down. Another method is to attach the tanks and booms to a tractor and spray closer to the ground. For small farmers, the most economical method of spraying is to use one or more workers with hand-held sprayers attached to small tanks. A hand pump can be carried on the shoulder; its tank capacity is only about 3 to 12 liters. Small tanks with a capacity of around 200 liters are also used. The pesticides are applied with a hand gun. A rough estimate of the amount applied is 150 to 300 liters per hectare.

Quality Control

Pesticides are by their very nature toxic substances; hence, a great deal of concern has centered on safety. The laws dealing with pesticide safety are very strict and will become even stricter in the future. Besides legal restrictions, pesticides are also subject to stringent quality control standards like any other manufactured product.

Most large pesticide manufacturers have highly developed quality control laboratories that test each pesticide for potency, emulsification, density, color, pH, particle size (if a dust), and suspension (if a liquid). If the company makes more than one pesticide, the product's identity must also be verified. A pesticide must be stable, easy to apply, and easy to store. Shelf-life must extend past one year. In accelerated tests, the pesticide is subjected to high temperatures for a short period, then checked for effectiveness. A typical pesticide is 95 percent pure. Labels must be easy to read and meet all regulations. The manufacturer keeps files for each raw material, active ingredient, formulation, and packaged item, and samples are stored for three years.

Today's pesticides, when used properly, are very safe. Farmers who apply their own pesticides must be trained by the U.S. Agricultural Extension Service and certified by the state department of agriculture before they can purchase pesticides. Commercial applicators must also undergo training and pass a written test.

When preparing a formulation for application, which in most cases means diluting it, the applicator should wear protective clothing as directed by the label. Often, this protective garb includes an apron or coveralls, a broad-brimmed hat, long-sleeved shirt, long socks, unlined neoprene or rubber gloves, long pants, and unlined neoprene or rubber boots worn over shoes. For some pesticides, applicators must also wear goggles and/or a respirator.

As an additional precaution, application equipment is calibrated before each use. To calibrate a sprayer, the applicator measures off a distance in the field, then sprays it with a neutral substance such as water. The amount of water used is then checked to see if it is appropriate. All equipment is also checked to see if spraying is even, and worn equipment is replaced promptly.

Byproducts/Waste

When they were introduced, pesticides were seen as a wonderful technology that would increase crop yields and reduce insect-borne diseases. The first sign that this was a hopeful myth was the discovery in the 1950s that pesticide volume must be increased to have the same effect it once had. With the publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962, an awareness of the danger of unrestricted pesticide use grew.

Pesticides kill the pests they are aiming for most of the time, yet often they also kill the pests' natural predators, thereby exacerbating the problem. In some cases, exterminating a pest merely allows another pest to take its place. After a period of pesticide use, the insects become resistant to the pesticide, and stronger or more pesticides must be used to control the population. There is evidence that pesticides are misused, that their effect in some cases is negligible, and that applicators are not aware of the proper use of pesticides. Coupled with these concerns is the worry over blanket spraying of residential areas and contaminated food.

DDT is the most widely noted case of a pesticide that caused damage far from the farm. High levels of DDT have been found in birds of prey, causing them to become endangered because of the effect it has on their eggs. DDT becomes more concentrated the higher it climbs in the food chain, and many people have voiced their concern about its possible presence in humans. In 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced a ban on almost all uses of DDT.

Several dozen other pesticides have also been banned, or their use restricted by the EPA. Ironically, these pesticides are still being exported to assist developing countries, where it is estimated that three million acute cases of pesticide poisoning occur per year, along with 20,000 deaths directly related to the misuse of pesticides. Because many of these countries export produce to the United States, the possibility of American contamination is high.

Integrated pest management (IPM) was begun in the 1960s in response to the pesticides dilemma. The idea behind IPM was to use a variety of insect controls instead of relying solely on chemical insecticides. The methods include introducing natural predators, parasites, and bacterial, viral, and fungal insecticides to the fields. Workers may simply vacuum up the insects, or introduce certain plants to ward off pests that attack a particular crop. Farmers may plow at the most effective time, plow their crop residue under, or strip harvest. They may plant pest-resistant plants. Sexual attractant traps may pull pests away from crops. Sterilized males can be released into the field. Insects can be engineered to remain juvenile and never reproduce, molt too rapidly and therefore die rapidly, or become too confused to locate crop foods. Other possibilities are being tested at present. It is possible that in the future pesticide use will diminish as research leads to ways to combat pests with more knowledge and planning and less reliance on chemical intervention.

Where To Learn More

Books

Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1962.

Lee, Sally. Pesticides. Franklin Watts, 1991.

Ware, George W. Pesticides: Theory and Application. W.H. Freeman, 1983.

Periodicals

Gibbons, Ann. "Overkilling the Insect Enemy." Science. August 10, 1990, p. 621.

Holmes, Bob. "The Joy Ride Is Over." U.S. News and World Report. September 14,1992, pp. 73-74.

Reganold, John P., Robert I. Papendick, and James F. Parr. "Sustainable Agriculture." Scientific American. June, 1990, pp. 112-120.

Richmond, Suzan. "Making Sure It's Organic." Changing Times. October, 1990, p. 102.

Satchell, Michael. "A Vicious 'Circle of Poison."' U.S. News and World Report. June 10, 1991, pp. 31-32.

[Article by: Rose Secrest]

A material useful for the mitigation, control, or elimination of plants or animals detrimental to human health or economy. Algicides, defoliants, desiccants, herbicides, plant growth regulators, and fungicides are used to regulate populations of undesirable plants which compete with or parasitize crop or ornamental plants. Attractants, insecticides, miticides, acaricides, molluscicides, nematocides, repellants, and rodenticides are used principally to reduce parasitism and disease transmission in domestic animals, the loss of crop plants, the destruction of processed food, textile, and wood products, and parasitism and disease transmission in humans.

Some pesticides are obtained from plants and minerals. Examples include the insecticides cryolite, a mineral, and nicotine, rotenone, and the pyrethrins which are extracted from plants. A few pesticides are obtained by the mass culture of microorganisms. Two examples are the toxin produced by Bacillus thuringiensis, which is active against moth and butterfly larvae, and the so-called milky disease of the Japanese beetle produced by the spores of B. popilliae. Most pesticides, however, are products which are chemically manufactured. Two outstanding examples are the insecticide DDT and the herbicide 2,4-D.

Concern over the undesirable effects of pesticides on nonpest organisms culminated in laws to prevent exposure of either humans or the environment to unreasonable hazard from pesticides through rigorous registration procedures. The purpose of regulations are to classify pesticides for general or restricted use as a function of acute toxicity, to certify the qualifications of users of restricted pesticides, to identify accurately and label pesticide products, and to ensure proper and safe use of pesticides. Recommendations as to the product and method of choice for control of any pest problem—weed, insect, or varmint—are best obtained from county or state agricultural extension specialists.

Sophisticated methods of pest control are continually being developed. Highly specific synthetic insect hormones are being developed. In an increasing number of pest situations, a natural predator of an insect has been introduced, or conditions are maintained that favor the propagation of the predator. The numbers of the potential pest species are thereby maintained below a critical threshold. An insect control program in which use of insecticides is only one aspect of a strategy based on ecologically sound measures is known as integrated pest management. See also Agricultural chemistry; Chemical ecology; Fungistat and fungicide; Herbicide; Insect control, biological; Insecticide.

Pesticides are a broad class of chemicals and biological agents that are specifically designed and applied to kill a pest. Specific types of pesticides target specific types of pests: insecticides kill insects, fungicides kill fungi and bacteria, herbicides kill weeds and other unwanted plant vegetation, molluscacides kill mollusks, acaricides kill spiders, and so on. Pesticide use dates back to ancient times.

Pesticides are regulated in the United States at both the federal and state level. The primary legislation, one of the oldest environmental laws, is the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA, 1972), which is administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Each state also has an agency responsible for carrying out FIFRA mandates. These agencies may be environmental or agricultural in nature, depending on the state. State laws can be more restrictive than the federal laws.

Pesticides are sometimes called "economic poisons." They are developed to kill something, and they are, therefore, inherently toxic. Pesticides that are less toxic are classified as "general use pesticides." These can be purchased by the average homeowner and applied without any special license or permits. More toxic compounds are called "restricted use pesticides" and their use requires a license. In some cases the restricted use materials have the same active ingredients as the general use materials, but at a higher concentration.

Anything that claims that it has pesticidal activity is, by law, a pesticide, and is subject to registration by the EPA and local state agencies. Household cleaners and bleach are legally pesticides—the pesticide registration number can be found on the product container.

Within the broad classes of products that have similar types of action (e.g., weed killers, insect killers) there are further distinctions regarding the type of chemistry. For example, among insect killers, there are synthetic pyrethroids, organophosphates, and organochlorines. The most well known are the organochlorines, such as chlordane and DDT, which became popular after World War II, and were used in agriculture, and for home and commercial use, for decades. These compounds have low acute toxicity, but are persistent in the environment and have caused a series of long-term environmental health problems. They remain in soil and tissue for a very long time, and they have been shown to have a harmful impact on animal endocrine systems. Most organochlorines were phased out of use in the 1980s. They were replaced by organophosphate materials that are less persistent, but more acutely toxic. In the beginning of the 1990s these compounds, too, were beginning to be phased out through government actions, and voluntarily by the manufacturers.

Pesticides have entered the food system in many parts of the world. Though credited with an enormous increase in food and fiber production, indiscriminate use of these products has led to acute and long-term health problems for humans and animals. There are risks associated with the application of a pesticide into a system, while at the same time there are benefits for using these materials to reduce disease, increased food production, and lessen the risk of starvation.

Pesticides have been applied in many part of the world to control vector-borne diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue, and others. The most prudent way to balance the benefits with the risks is an integrated approach to pesticide use, combining all control methods—physical, biological, cultural, and chemical.

(SEE ALSO: Environmental Movement; Environmental Protection Agency; Fungicides; Toxicology)

Bibliography

Hayes, W., and Laws, E. (1991). Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Vol. 1. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Wallace, R., ed. (1998). Maxcy-Rosenau-Last Public Health and Preventive Medicine. Stamford, CT: Appleton and Lange.

— MARK G. ROBSON

For more information on pesticide, visit Britannica.com.

A pesticide is any agent used to kill or control a pest. Pests include insects, weeds, and diseases, such as fungi. In addition, mice, rats, birds, and algae may become pests at some time. When pests damage plants or property, people often use pesticides to control them. The term "pesticide" can apply to insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, antimicrobials, growth regulators, defoliants, and desiccants, most of which are applied to food or food plants before or after harvest. Common pesticides are encountered every day—in pet flea collars, kitchen disinfectants, cockroach baits, swimming pool chemicals, and mosquito repellents. Pesticide products contain both active and inert ingredients, and both must be specified on the label.

Pesticide Controversy

Modern farmers use pesticides to help them to grow almost all of the world's food. In general, pesticides have been a quick, effective, and inexpensive method of control for pests that attack most of the world's food crops. Pesticides are credited with helping to save millions of lives by controlling diseases, such as malaria and yellow fever, which are spread by insects. However, most pesticides present some risk of harm to humans, animals, or the environment because they are designed to kill living organisms.

Sulfur, herbal extracts, tobacco, soaps, oil, arsenic, pyrethrum, and lime have been used as pesticides for many centuries, but the widespread use of synthetic pesticides is a relatively recent phenomenon. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, or DDT, is probably the best known early pesticide. DDT was created in 1873, but it was not until the late 1930s that Swiss researcher Paul Müller discovered that the compound was effective in killing insects. Müller won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1948 for his work. DDT was an inexpensive and effective solution to many insect problems, and it virtually eliminated malaria from parts of the world. After World War II, DDT became a common agricultural pesticide. In the 1950s, the United States was producing 220 million pounds of DDT per year.

Insect resistance to the substance developed quickly. DDT residues were found in human milk and fatty tissues, and in wildlife food chains. In 1962 writer and ecologist Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring to warn the public about the long-term effects of misusing pesticides. Carson challenged the practices of agricultural scientists and the government, and called for a change in the way humankind viewed the natural world. Carson testified before Congress in 1963, calling for new policies to protect human health and the environment. While no longer used in the United States, DDT use continues in other parts of the world. Many tropical countries still use DDT to control malaria.

All pesticides (natural and synthetic) have the potential to cause harm during their manufacture or refinement, at the time of application to crops, as residues that persist on food, and in the disruption of the natural balance that exists between pests and their natural enemies. For example, traces of the natural insecticide "rotenone" may be found on vegetables after cooking. Atrazine, a weed-killer commonly used on corn and soybeans, suburban lawns, and utility rights-of-way, has contaminated groundwater where those crops are grown. Insecticides like DDE and dieldrin, which are related to DDT, were banned in the United States in the 1970s, but still show up in the U.S. food supply. Persistent residues of these chemicals travel long distances in global air and water currents. These insecticides are still produced and used in many countries. Recent studies have linked pesticides with acute poisonings, cancer, brain damage, reproductive harm, and many childhood illnesses and learning problems, leading concerned citizens to feel that pesticides should be banned.

Organic Agriculture

Some agricultural experts predict that the quality and quantity of our food supply would be lessened if pesticides were eliminated. However, practitioners of organic agriculture (organic farmers use no synthetic agricultural chemicals and instead rely on management practices such as crop rotation, disease-resistant varieties, and natural enemies to control crop pests) claim that food quality and yield are equally productive under organic management. Fortunately for conventional and organic farmers, the number of safer, reduced-risk options for pest control is increasing. For example, there were approximately seven hundred new, biological pesticide products registered by 1999. Biological pesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and minerals.

Garlic, mint, and baking soda all have pesticide-like properties and are considered biological pesticides. Biological pesticides include the common cabbage worm killer Bacillus thuringiensis, which produces a protein that helps to kill specific worm pests. Some of the new reduced-risk pesticides, while synthesized in a laboratory, are considered safer because they do not kill beneficial insects (such as lady beetles and lacewings), or they break down quickly to inactive products. In 1977 U.S. president Jimmy Carter issued a Presidential Decree that mandated the use of integrated pest management (IPM)—a comprehensive approach to pest control that uses a combination of less toxic means to reduce the status of pests to tolerant levels, while maintaining a quality environment. Together, the new reduced-risk pesticides and IPM practices have helped to lessen the amount of pesticides that are used on food and other crops. Levels of pesticide residues on IPM produce have been reported as higher than those of organically grown food, but lower than those in conventionally grown produce.

Pesticides and Their Regulation

In the United States, pesticides are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPA regulates the sale, distribution, and use of pesticides and has the authority to suspend or cancel the registration of a pesticide if information shows that continued use would pose unreasonable risks. In 1996 the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) was signed into law, giving EPA more effective power. Among its many benefits, the FQPA established a new health-based safety standard for pesticide residues in food; included special provisions for infants and children; required periodic tolerance reevaluations; incorporated provisions for endocrine testing; and allowed for enhanced enforcement of pesticide residue standards.

Scientists predict that, in the future, pesticides will continue to play a role in pest management of food crops, partly because reduced-risk pesticides have become less harmful to the environment, and less toxic to people and wildlife. Societal concerns, scientific advances, and regulatory pressures continue to drive some of the more hazardous pesticides from the marketplace. In addition, consumer interest in safe and healthy food will create more demand for organically grown products.

Bibliography

Cruising chemistry. An introduction to the chemistry of the world around you. "DDT: An Introduction." University of California, San Diego. Available at http://www.chem.duke.edu/jds/cruise_chem/pest/pest1.html.

Entomology at Rutgers. Agricultural Entomology and Pest Management course. Entomology 370–350—Spring 2001, Dr. George Hamilton. Available at http://aesop.rutgers.edu/hamilton/agent.htm.

"The Future Role of Pesticides in U.S. Agriculture." 2000. Committee on the Future Role of Pesticides in U.S. Agriculture, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources and Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission on Life. Available at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309065267/html/17.html.

Lear, Linda. The Rachel Carson Website. Available at http://www.rachelcarson.org/.

Natural Resources Defense Council. Available at http://www.nrdc.org/health/pesticides/default.asp.

Paul Hermann Müller—Biography. Nobel e-Museum. The Nobel Foundation. The Official Web Site of The Nobel Foundation. Available at http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1948/muller-bio.html.

Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database. Available at http://docs.pesticideinfo.org/documentation3/ref_general3.html.

Pesticide Action Network Toxicity Ratings. Available at http://docs.pesticideinfo.org/documentation3/ref_toxicity2.html.

Pesticide Data Program. USDA Agricultural Marketing Service Science and Technology Programs. Progress Report 2001. Available at http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/progress.htm#skipusers).

U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs. Biopesticides. Available at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/citizens/biopesticides.htm.

U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs. Highlights of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Available at http://www.epa.gov/opppsps1/fqpa/fqpahigh.htm.

U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs. What the Pesticide Residue Limits Are on Food. Available at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food/viewtols.htm.

—Patricia S. Michalak

A poison used to destroy pests of any sort. See arsenical, carbamates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphorus compound, pyrethroids.

• p. poisoning — pesticides are selective poisons chosen for use because of their relative safety for humans and animals. It is likely that they will poison these species if they are used in sufficient quantity or in special circumstances, for example when the water intake of the subject animals is limited.
• p. resistance — continued use of a single agent, or a group of closely allied agents, can cause selective survival of insects with innate tolerance of the agent and lead to the development of a resistant population.
• p. tissue residues — some pesticides have had to be withdrawn from use because of their persistence in the tissues of animals including humans. The passage of the agent in the milk of the animal is a comparable problem.

A general term for any compound used to kill insects, mites, weeds, fungi, bacteria, or other pests.

A cropduster spraying pesticide on a field

A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest.^[1] A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substance intended for: - preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.^[2] A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), microbes and people that destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals. FAO has defined the term of pesticide as:

any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances which may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant or agent for thining fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit, and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. ^[3]

Contents 1 Types of pesticides 2 Uses 3 History 4 Regulation 5 Environmental effects 6 Health effects 6.1 Farmers and workers 6.2 Consumers 6.3 The public 7 Continuing development 8 Alternatives 9 See also 10 Notes & References 11 Further reading 11.1 Books 11.2 Journal Articles 11.3 News 12 External links 12.1 General information 12.2 Pesticide regulatory authorities 12.3 Human health

Types of pesticides

There are multiple ways of classifying pesticides.

• Algicides or algaecides for the control of algae
• Avicides for the control of birds
• Bactericides for the control of bacteria

• Fungicides for the control of fungi and oomycetes
• Herbicides (e.g. glyphosate) for the control of weeds
• Insecticides (e.g. organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids) for the control of insects - these can be ovicides (substances that kill eggs), larvicides (substances that kill larvae) or adulticides (substances that kill adults)
• Miticides or acaricides for the control of mites
• Molluscicides for the control of slugs and snails
• Nematicides for the control of nematodes
• Rodenticides for the control of rodents
• Virucides for the control of viruses (e.g. H5N1)

Pesticides can also be classed as synthetic pesticides or biological pesticides (biopesticides), although the distinction can sometimes blur.

Broad-spectrum pesticides are those that kill an array of species, while narrow-spectrum, or selective pesticides only kill a small group of species.^[4]

A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides which poison pollen and nectar in the flowers may kill needed pollinators such as bees.

Most pesticides work by poisoning pests.^[5]

In 2009, the development of a new class of fungicides called paldoxins was announced. These work by taking advantage of natural defense chemicals released by plants called phytoalexins, which fungi then detoxify using enzymes. The paldoxins inhibit the fungi's detoxification enzymes. They are believed to be safer and greener.^[6]

Uses

Pesticides are used to control organisms which are considered harmful.^[7] For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like west nile virus, yellow fever, and malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas.^[7] Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by mouldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds in parks and wilderness areas which may cause environmental damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.^[8] Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses.^[7] Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide regulatory agencies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) of Canada.

Pesticides can save farmers' money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests; in the US, farmers get an estimated fourfold return on money they spend on pesticides.^[9] One study found that not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about 10%.^[10] Another study,conducted in 1999, found that a ban on pesticides in the United States may result in a rise of food prices, loss of jobs, and an increase in world hunger.^[11]

DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochloride that has been used to fight malaria since the 1950s. Recent policy statements by the World Health Organization have given stronger support to this approach. ^[12] Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT."^[12] However, since then, an October 2007 study has linked breast cancer from exposure to DDT prior to puberty.^[13] Poisoning may also occur due to use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons by entering the human food chain when animal tissues are affected. Symptoms include nervous excitement, tremors, convulsions or death. Scientists estimate that DDT and other chemicals in the organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945 by preventing the transmission of diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and typhus.^[4] However, DDT use is not always effective, as resistance to DDT was identified in Africa as early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT.^[14] A study for the World Health Organization in 2000 from Vietnam established that non-DDT malaria controls were significantly more effective than DDT use.^[15] The ecological effect of DDT on organisms is an example of bioaccumulation.

History

Since before 2500 BCE, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in Sumer about 4,500 years ago. By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as arsenic, mercury and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum which is derived from chrysanthemums, and rotenone which is derived from the roots of tropical vegetables.^[16]

In 1939, Paul Müller discovered that DDT was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely used pesticide in the world.

In the 1940s manufacturers began to produce large amounts of synthetic pesticides and their use became widespread.^[17] Some sources consider the 1940s and 1950s to have been the start of the "pesticide era."^[18] Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950 and 2.3 million tonnes (2.5 million short tons) of industrial pesticides are now used each year.^[16] Seventy-five percent of all pesticides in the world are used in developed countries, but use in developing countries is increasing.^[4]

In the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing, which was a serious threat to biodiversity. Rachel Carson wrote the best-selling book Silent Spring about biological magnification. The agricultural use of DDT is now banned under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent malaria and other tropical diseases by spraying on interior walls to kill or repel mosquitoes.^[19]

Regulation

Preparing for pesticide application.

In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency.^[20] For example, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does so. Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is safe to use and effective against the intended pest. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class.

Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides.^[20] Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.

In Europe, recent EU legislation has been approved banning the use of highly toxic pesticides including those which are carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction, those which are endocrine-disrupting, and those which are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) or very persistent and very bioaccumulative (vPvB). Measures were approved to improve the general safety of pesticides across all EU member states. ^[21]

In Canada, 154 municipalities and the entire provinces of Quebec and Ontario have now placed restrictions on the cosmetic use of synthetic lawn pesticides as a result of health and environmental concerns.^[22] The Ontario provincial government promised on September 24, 2007 to also implement a province-wide ban on the cosmetic use of lawn pesticides, for protecting the public.^[23] Medical and environmental groups support such a ban.^[24] On April 22, 2008, the Provincial Government of Ontario announced that it will pass legislation that will prohibit, province-wide, the cosmetic use and sale of lawn and garden pesticides.^[25] The Ontario province-wide pesticide ban on lawn pesticides will come into force on Earth Day, April 22, 2009. ^[26] Over 250 products will be banned for sale and more than 95 pesticide ingredients will be banned for cosmetic uses. ^[27] The Ontario legislation would also echo Massachusetts law requiring pesticide manufacturers to reduce the toxins they use in production.^[28] The Province of Prince Edward Island has also announced that it will pass legislation that bans cosmetic pesticides, starting 2010.^[29] On April 3, 2008, the Canadian Cancer Society released opinion poll results conducted by Ipsos Reid, which established that a clear majority of residents in the provinces of British Columbia and Saskatchewan want province-wide cosmetic lawn pesticide bans, and that the majority of respondents believe that cosmetic pesticides are a threat to their health.

Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 to create voluntary standards of pesticide regulation for different countries.^[20] The Code was updated in 1998 and 2002.^[30] The FAO claims that the code has raised awareness about pesticide hazards and decreased the number of countries without restrictions on pesticide use.^[3]

Two other efforts to improve regulation of international pesticide trade are the United Nations London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade and the United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission^{[citation needed]}. The former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent exists between countries buying and selling pesticides, while the latter seeks to create uniform standards for maximum levels of pesticide residues among participating countries.^[31] Both initiatives operate on a voluntary basis.^[31]

Reading and following label directions is required by law in countries such as the US and in limited parts of the rest of the world.

One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful to humans.^[32]

Environmental effects

Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water, bottom sediments and food. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.

Health effects

Pesticides can present danger to consumers, workers and close bystanders during manufacture, transport, or during and after use.^[33]

The American Medical Association recommends limiting exposure to pesticides and using safer alternatives:

Particular uncertainty exists regarding the long-term effects of low-dose pesticide exposures. Current surveillance systems are inadequate to characterize potential exposure problems related either to pesticide usage or pesticide-related illnesses…Considering these data gaps, it is prudent…to limit pesticide exposures…and to use the least toxic chemical pesticide or non-chemical alternative.^[34]

Farmers and workers

There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure.^[35]

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe poisoning from pesticides, about 18,000 of whom die.^[4] According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.^[36]

Organophosphate pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.^[37] These are associated with acute health problems for workers that handle the chemicals, such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.^[38] Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,^[39][40] cancer,^[41] depression,^[42] neurological deficits,^[43][44] miscarriages, and birth defects.^{[45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54]} Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers.^[55][56]

According to researchers from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), licensed pesticide applicators who used chlorinated pesticides on more than 100 days in their lifetime were at greater risk of diabetes. In a paper appearing in the May, 2008, issue of the American Journal of Epidemiology, researchers said the associations between specific pesticides and incident diabetes ranged from a 20 percent to a 200 percent increase in risk. New cases of diabetes were reported by 3.4 percent of those in the lowest pesticide use category compared with 4.6 percent of those in the highest category. Risks were greater when users of specific pesticides were compared with applicators who never applied that chemical.^[57][58]

Consumers

The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

There are concerns that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to people who consume those foods. These concerns are one reason for the organic food movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain pesticide residues after being washed or peeled. Chemicals that are no longer used but which are resistant to breakdown for long periods may remain in soil and water and thus in food.^[59]

The United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission has recommended international standards for Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs), for individual pesticides in food.^[60]

In the EU, MRLs are set by DG-SANCO. In the US, levels of residues that remain on foods are limited to tolerance levels that are established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency‎ and are considered safe.^[61] The EPA sets the tolerances based on the toxicity of the pesticide and its breakdown products, the amount and frequency of pesticide application, and how much of the pesticide (i.e., the residue) remains in or on food by the time it is marketed and prepared.^[62] Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modeling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is little information on possible synergistic effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water.^[63]

A study published by the United States National Research Council in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.^[64] A study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with organic food (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it was found that levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet.^[65]

To reduce the amounts of pesticide residues in food, consumers can wash, peel, and cook their food; trim the fat from meat; and eat a variety of foods to avoid repeat exposure to a pesticide typically used on a given crop.^[59] Consumers can also buy food that is grown organically, though even organic food may have traces of pesticides.^[59]

Strawberries and tomatoes are the two crops with the most intensive use of soil fumigants. They are particularly vulnerable to several type of diseases, insects, mites, and parasitic worms. In 2003, in California alone, 3.7 million pounds (1,700 metric tons) of metam sodium were used on tomatoes. In recent years other farmers have demonstrated that it is possible to produce strawberries and tomatoes without the use of harmful chemicals and in a cost effective way.^[66]

The public

Exposure routes other than consuming food that contains residues, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public.^[67]

The Bhopal disaster occurred when a pesticide plant released 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, a chemical intermediate in the synthesis of some carbamate pesticides. The disaster immediately killed nearly 3,000 people and ultimately caused at least 15,000 deaths.^[68]

In China, an estimated half million people are poisoned by pesticides each year, 500 of whom die.^[69]

Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects of pesticides.^[70] A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.^[71] Often used for ridding school buildings of rodents, insects, pests, etc., pesticides only work temporarily and must be re-applied. The poisons found in pesticides are not selectively harmful to just pests and in everyday school environments children (and faculty) are exposed to high levels of pesticides and cleaning materials. "No testing has ever been done specifically pertaining to threats among children"^[72]

Peer-reviewed studies now suggest neurotoxic effects on developing animals from organophosphate pesticides at legally tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, lower birth weights, and lower cognitive scores.^{[citation needed]} The United States Environmental Protection Agency‎ finished a 10 year review of the organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers.^[73][74]

Some scientists think that exposure to pesticides in the uterus may have negative effects on a fetus that may manifest as problems such as growth and behavioral disorders or reduced resistance to pesticide toxicity later in life.^[75]

A new study conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, has discovered a 70% increase in the risk of developing Parkinson's disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides.^[76]

A 2008 study from Duke University found that the Parkinson's patients were 61 percent more likely to report direct pesticide application than were healthy relatives. Both insecticides and herbicides significantly increased the risk of Parkinson's disease. ^[77]

One study found that use of pesticides may be behind the finding that the rate of birth defects such as missing or very small eyes is twice as high in rural areas as in urban areas.^[78] Another study found no connection between eye abnormalities and pesticides.^[78] In the USA, increase in birth defects is associated with conceiving in the same period of the year when agrichemicals are in elevated concentrations in surface water.^[79]

Pyrethrins, insecticides commonly used in common bug killers, can cause a potentially deadly condition if breathed in.^[80]

Continuing development

Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and choosing less toxic pesticides may reduce risks placed on society and the environment from pesticide use.^[8] Integrated pest management, the use of multiple approaches to control pests, is becoming widespread and has been used with success in countries such as Indonesia, China, Bangladesh, the US, Australia, and Mexico.^[4] IPM attempts to recognize the more widespread impacts of an action on an ecosystem, so that natural balances are not upset.^[17] New pesticides are being developed, including biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives that are thought to reduce health and environmental risks. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides.

Pesticides can be created that are targeted to a specific pest's life cycle, which can be environmentally more friendly.^[81] For example, potato cyst nematodes emerge from their protective cysts in response to a chemical excreted by potatoes; they feed on the potatoes and damage the crop.^[81] A similar chemical can be applied to fields early, before the potatoes are planted, causing the nematodes to emerge early and starve in the absence of potatoes.^[81]

Alternatives

Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of Biological controls,such as pheromones and microbial pesticides, and genetic engineering, and methods of interfering with insect breeding.^[4] These methods are becoming increasingly popular and often are safer than traditional chemical pesticides. In addition, EPA is registering reduced-risk conventional pesticides in increasing numbers.

Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types of plants), crop rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract pests away from the real crop.^[4] In the US, farmers have had success controlling insects by spraying with hot water at a cost that is about the same as pesticide spraying.^[4]

Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another example of an alternative to pesticide use. These organisms can include natural predators or parasites of the pests.^[4] Biological pesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses cause disease in the pest species can also be used.^[4]

Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males of the target species and releasing them, so that they mate with females but do not produce offspring.^[4] This technique was first used on the screwworm fly in 1958 and has since been used with the medfly, the tsetse fly,^[82] and the gypsy moth.^[83] However, this can be a costly, time consuming approach that only works on some types of insects.^[4]

Another alternative to pesticides is the thermal treatment of soil through steam. Soil steaming kills pest and increases soil health.

In India, traditional pest control methods include using Panchakavya, the "mixture of five products." The method has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity due in part to use by the organic farming community.^{[citation needed]}

Some evidence shows that alternatives to pesticides can be equally effective as the use of chemicals. For example, Sweden has halved its use of pesticides with hardly any reduction in crops.^[4] In Indonesia, farmers have reduced pesticide use on rice fields by 65% and experienced a 15% crop increase.^[4]

See also

• Agrochemicals
• Avicide
• Biopesticide
• Biological pesticide
• Chitosan (Natural Biocontrol for Agricultural & Horticultural use)
• Fungicide
• Herbicide
• Insecticide
• Integrated Pest Management
• List of environmental health hazards
• Non-pesticide management
• Nonpoint source pollution
• Persistent organic pollutant
• Pesticide application
• Pesticide formulation
• Pesticide misuse
• Pesticide poisoning
• Pesticide resistance
• Pesticide toxicity to bees
• Pesticide use in the United States
• Phytoremediation
• Rodenticide
• Soil contamination
• The Pesticide Question: Environment, Economics and Ethics (book)
• UK Pesticides Campaign

Notes & References

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4. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n} Miller GT (2004), Sustaining the Earth, 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, Pages 211-216.
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78. ^ ^{a b} BBC News (October 1, 1998), Pesticide link to eye abnormalities. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.
79. ^ Winchester, Pd; Huskins, J; Ying, J (Apr 2009). "Agrichemicals in surface water and birth defects in the United States". Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992) 98 (4): 664–9. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.01207.x. PMID 19183116.  edit
80. ^ Medline Plus (May 17, 2006), Medical Encyclopedia: Insecticide. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.
81. ^ ^{a b c} Science Daily, (October 11, 2001), Environmentally-friendly pesticide to combat potato cyst nematodes. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
82. ^ (July 2007), The biological control of pests. Retrieved on September 17, 2007.
83. ^ SP-401 Skylab, Classroom in Space: Part III - Science Demonstrations, Chapter 17: Life Sciences. History.nasa.gov. Retrieved on September 17, 2007.

Further reading

Books

• Greene, Stanley A.; Pohanish, Richard P. (editors) (2005). Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals. SciTech Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-8155-1516-2. 
• Tomlin, Clive (editor) (2006). "The Pesticide Manual", 14th edition, 1350 pages. British Crop Protection Council (BCPC). ISBN 1-901396-14-2. 
• Hamilton, Denis; Crossley, Stephen (editors) (2004). Pesticide residues in food and drinking water. J. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-48991-3. 
• Hond, Frank et al. (2003). Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives. Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-05659-2. 
• Kegley, Susan E.; Wise, Laura J. (1998). Pesticides in fruits and vegetables. University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-46-6. 
• Levine, Marvin J. (2007). Pesticides: A Toxic Time Bomb in our Midst. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-99127-2. 
• Ware, George W.; Whitacre, David M. (2004). Pesticide Book. Meister Publishing Co. ISBN 1-892829-11-8. 
• Watson, David H. (editor) (2004). Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 1-85573-734-5. 

Journal Articles

• Walter A. Alarcon, et al. (July 2005). "Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools". Journal of the American Medical Association 294: 455–465. doi:10.1001/jama.294.4.455. PMID 16046652. 

News

• Janofsky, M (August 4, 2006). "E.P.A. recommends limits on thousands of uses of pesticides". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/04/washington/04pest.html. Retrieved on 2006-08-24. 
• Janofsky, M (2006-08-02). "Unions say E.P.A. bends to political pressure". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/02/washington/02pest.html. Retrieved on 2007-10-10. 
• Kaiser, J (June 2005). "Endocrine disrupters trigger fertility problems in multiple generations". Science 308: 1391–1392. doi:10.1126/science.308.5727.1391a. PMID 15933166. 
• Kaiser, J (May 2005). "House would foil human pesticide studies". Science 308: 1234. doi:10.1126/science.308.5726.1234b. PMID 15919959. 
• Webster, P (Dec 2004). "Study finds heavy contamination across vast Russian Arctic". Science 306: 1875. doi:10.1126/science.306.5703.1875a. PMID 15591171. 
• Stokstad, E (Nov 2004). "EPA criticized for study of child pesticide exposure". Science 306: 961. doi:10.1126/science.306.5698.961. PMID 15528421. 
• Helmuth, L (Nov 2000). "Pesticide causes Parkinson's in rats". Science 290: 1068. doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1068a. 
• Adam, D (Nov 2000). "Pesticide use linked to Parkinson's disease". Nature 408: 125. doi:10.1038/35041740. 

External links

General information

• Pesticide laws guidance on NetRegs.gov.uk
• Pesticide Modes of action (International Pesticide Application Research Centre)
• PAN-UK. Working to eliminate the dangers of toxic pesticides, our exposure to them, and their presence in the environment where we live and work.
• National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC) Information about pesticide-related topics.
• Beyond Pesticides, founded in 1981 as the National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides - Source of information on pesticide hazards, least-toxic practices and products, and on pesticide issues. Website has Daily News Blog relating to pesticides.
• Compendium of Pesticide Common Names: Classified Lists of Pesticides Lists of pesticide names by type.
• Pesticide Action Network. PAN Pesticides Database. Compilation of multiple regulatory databases into a web-accessible form.
• Pesticide Information [1] Supplies resources and a dialogue for improved understanding of argumaets for and against pesticides.

Pesticide regulatory authorities

• [2] College voor toelating bestrijdingsmiddelen en biociden. Regulatory authority in the Netherlands - information available in English
• UK Pesticides Safety Directorate
• European Commission pesticide information
• Lake Ontario Waterkeeper (May 21, 2008) -- Pesticide legislation suggests industry lobby is still alive and well
• United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pesticides Program

Human health

• NIH encyclopedia pages with emergency treatment of Insecticide exposure
• Durango Software - Provides risk assessment tools for pesticide use
• Environmental Working Group (July 14, 2005), The Pollution in Newborns.
• Hazard Communications for Agricultural Workers (October 2007)
• National Agricultural Workers Survey
• Pesticides and Health -- Greenpeace China

v • d • e Horticulture and Gardening Gardens Garden · Garden design · Arboretum Horticulture Horticulture · Urban agriculture · Intercropping · Plant · Botany Organic Organic horticulture · Plant protection Pesticide · Weed control

v • d • e Pest control:Herbicides Anilides/Anilines acetochlor · alachlor · asulam · butachlor · diethatyl · diflufenican · dimethenamid · flamprop · metazachlor · metolachlor · pendimethalin · pretilachlor · propachlor · propanil · trifluralin Aromatic acids aminopyralid · chloramben · clopyralid · dicamba · picloram · pyrithiobac · quinclorac · quinmerac Arsenicals cacodylic acid · copper arsenate · DSMA · MSMA Organophosphorus bensulide · bilanafos · ethephon · fosamine · glufosinate · glyphosate · piperophos Phenoxy 2,4-D · 2,4-DB · dichlorprop · fenoprop · MCPA · MCPB · 2,4,5-T Pyridines dithiopyr · fluroxypyr · imazapyr · thiazopyr · triclopyr Quaternary diquat · MPP · paraquat Triazines ametryn · atrazine · cyanazine · hexazinone · prometon · prometryn · propazine · simazine · simetryn · terbuthylazine · terbutryn Ureas chlortoluron · DCMU · metsulfuron-methyl Others 3-AT · bromoxynil · clomazone · DCBN · dinoseb · juglone · methazole · metham sodium · sulfentrazone

v • d • e Pest control: insecticides Carbamates aldicarb · bendiocarb · carbaryl · carbofuran · ethienocarb · fenoxycarb · fenobucarb · propoxur Inorganic compounds aluminium phosphide · boric acid · chromated copper arsenate · copper arsenate · copper cyanide · diatomaceous earth · lead hydrogen arsenate · Paris Green · Scheele's Green Organochlorides aldrin · beta-HCH · carbon tetrachloride · chlordane · cyclodiene · 1,2-DCB · 1,4-DCB · 1,1-DCE · 1,2-DCE · DDD · DDE · DDT · dicofol · dieldrin · endosulfan · endrin · heptachlor · kepone · lindane · methoxychlor · mirex · tetradifon · toxaphene Organophosphorus Acephate · azinphos-methyl · bensulide · chlorethoxyfos · chlorfenvinphos · chlorpyrifos · chlorpyrifos-methyl · coumaphos · demeton-S-methyl · diazinon · dicrotophos · diisopropyl fluorophosphate · dimethoate · dioxathion · disulfoton · ethion · ethoprop · fenamiphos · fenitrothion · fenthion · fosthiazate · isoxathion · malathion · methamidophos · methidathion · mevinphos · monocrotophos · naled · omethoate · oxydemeton-methyl · parathion · parathion-methyl · phorate · phosalone · phosmet · phostebupirim · phoxim · pirimiphos-methyl · temefos · terbufos · tetrachlorvinphos · tribufos · trichlorfon Pyrethroids allethrin · bifenthrin · cyhalothrin · cypermethrin · cyfluthrin · deltamethrin · etofenprox · lambda-cyhalothrin · permethrin · phenothrin · prallethrin · pyrethrin · pyrethrum · resmethrin · tetramethrin · tralomethrin · transfluthrin Other acetamiprid · amitraz · azadirachtin · chlorfenapyr · clothianidin · cyromazine · fenoxycarb · fenvalerate · fipronil · hydramethylnon · imidacloprid · limonene · lufenuron · nitenpyram · nithiazine · pyriproxyfen · sesamex · spinosad · tebufenpyrad · thiacloprid · thiamethoxam · veracevine · xanthone Metabolites oxon · Paraoxon · TCPy

v • d • e Pest control: rodenticides Anticoagulants/ vitamin K antagonists coumarins/4-Hydroxycoumarins: 1st generation (Warfarin, Coumatetralyl) • 2nd generation (Brodifacoum, Difenacoum, Flocoumafen) 1,3-Indandiones: Chlorophacinone • Pindone • Diphacinone other: Difethialone Convulsants Crimidine • Phenylsilatrane • Strychnine • Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine Calciferols Cholecalciferol • Ergocalciferol Inorganic compounds Aluminium phosphide • Arsenic • Barium carbonate • Calcium phosphide • Cyanide • Thallium • Zinc phosphide Organochlorine Chloralose • Endrin Organophosphorus Phosacetim Metabolic poisons Bromethalin • Fluoroacetamide • 1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol (Gliftor) • Sodium fluoroacetate Other α-Naphthylthiourea • Norbormide • Pyrinuron • Scilliroside

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - pesticid

Nederlands (Dutch)
verdelgingsmiddel

Français (French)
n. - pesticide

Deutsch (German)
n. - Pestizid

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (χημ.) ζιζανιοκτόνο, εντομοκτόνο

Italiano (Italian)
pesticida

Português (Portuguese)
n. - pesticida (m), agrotóxico (m), pesticídio (m)

Русский (Russian)
пестицид

Español (Spanish)
n. - pesticida, plaguicida

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - pesticid, bekämpningsmedel (mot skadeinsekter etc)

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
杀虫剂

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 殺蟲劑

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 살충제

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 殺虫剤

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) مبيد للحشرات‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮מדביר מזיקים‬

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