Dictionary:

Portugal

  (pôr'chə-gəl, pōr'-)

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Portugal

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A country of southwest Europe on the western Iberian Peninsula. It includes the Madeira Islands and the Azores in the northern Atlantic Ocean. Originally inhabited by the Lusitanians, a Celtiberian people, the mainland area was subjugated by the Romans in the second century B.C. and was later conquered by the Visigoths and Moors. Spain recognized Portugal as an independent kingdom in 1143, and it soon flourished as a maritime and colonial power with holdings stretching from Africa to the Far East and Brazil in the New World. Much of its empire was lost to the British and the Dutch in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the remaining colonies in Africa became independent in the 20th century. Lisbon is the capital and the largest city. Population: 10,600,000.

Country, on the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula, southwestern Europe. Area: 35,580 sq mi (92,152 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 10,513,000. Capital: Lisbon. Most of the people are Portuguese. Language: Portuguese (official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic). Currency: euro. Administratively, the Atlantic islands of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. Portugal is divided roughly in half by the Tagus River; the highlands rise mostly north of the Tagus and stretch northeast into Spain. Portugal has an industrialized economy in which both public and private sectors participate. Major industries were nationalized after a military coup in 1974, but many were returned to the private sector beginning in the late 1980s. Although motor vehicle manufacture is significant, light industries predominate; important products include textiles and clothing, paper and wood products, and chemicals. Portugal is a republic with a unicameral legislature; the chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. In the 1st millennium BC, Celtic peoples settled the Iberian Peninsula. They were conquered c. 140 BC by the Romans, who ruled until the 5th century AD, when the area was invaded by Germanic tribes. A Muslim invasion in 711 left only the northern part of Portugal in Christian hands. In 1179 it became the kingdom of Portugal and expanded as it reconquered the Muslim-held sectors. The boundaries of modern continental Portugal were completed under King Afonso III (reigned 1248 – 79). From 1580 to 1640 Portugal was united with Spain. In the 15th and 16th centuries the monarchy encouraged exploration that took Portuguese navigators to Africa, India, Indonesia, China, the Middle East, and South America. Although Portugal established several colonies, they achieved independence over the years (see Brazil; Goa; Cape Verde; East Timor; Angola; Guinea-Bissau; Mozambique; Macau). António de Oliveira Salazar ruled Portugal as a dictator from 1932 to 1968. The country's dictatorship was overthrown in the April 25, 1974, Revolution of the Carnations. A new constitution was adopted in 1976, and civilian rule resumed. Portugal was a charter member of NATO and is a member of the European Union (EU). In 1999 the government adopted the euro as the country's official monetary unit and returned Macau, its last overseas territory, to Chinese rule.

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The early history of photography in a backward country with a weak middle class was linked to the efforts of a relatively small number of individuals. The Scottish wine merchant Frederick Flower made an important series of calotypes in Oporto in the 1850s. Major Russell Gordon (a Portuguese aristocrat of Scottish descent) announced an effective dry- collodion process in 1861, and was associated with Portugal's first significant photography show that year, part of the industrial exhibition organized by the Portuguese Industrial Association. (The year 1861 also saw the foundation of the elite Clube Photographico in Lisbon.) In the 1860s Carlos Relvas, a wealthy amateur resident at Golegã, c. 100 km (60 miles) from the capital, took up photography and joined the movement, in which the Englishman Charles Thurston Thompson (1816-68) and the French-born Spanish photographer Juan Laurent (1816-c. 92) also participated, to record Portuguese historical monuments. Relvas subsequently became the first Portuguese photographer to achieve an international reputation, and in 1875 introduced the collotype process into Portugal from Germany. He also worked closely with José Júlio Rodrigues, who founded the photography section of the Portuguese Directorate-General of Geographical Works (1872-9), and in 1875 organized the first national photographic exhibition. Further developments took place in the following decade: the appearance of an important amateur magazine, A arte photographica, in 1884, an international photography exhibition in Oporto in 1886, and the creation of two more amateur organizations that year and in 1890. Between 1882 and 1885 the German-born photographer and publisher Emilio Biel (1838-1915) produced a series of albums on railway construction in Portugal.

The accession of Carlos I in 1889 was followed by decades of upheaval, with political violence, financial crisis, the proclamation of a republic in 1910, ill-starred participation in the First World War, and periods of revolution and dictatorship. The regime (1932-70) of Antonio Salazar, a conservative-authoritarian dictatorship with fascist trimmings, achieved a degree of stability, especially economic, but at the cost of cultural stagnation. The use of cameras in public was restricted, and photography was dominated by a romantic pictorialism that celebrated timeless landscapes, historic monuments, and traditional ways of life. Particularly prominent was the veteran Domingos Alvão (1872-1946), with black-and-white images of merry grape pickers and solemn port refiners that symbolized the unchanging rhythms of rural life along the Douro. However, other kinds of work were possible: for example Orlando Ribeiro's (b. 1911) topographical and documentary work in Portugal and overseas; the surrealistic photographs and films of Carlos Calvet (b. 1928); and the contrasty street scenes caught by Manuel Costa Martins (1922-95) and Victor Palla (b. 1922) in Lisbon's formerly Arab quarter of Alfama: semi-clandestine portraits of people snatching conversations and running, head down, among pools of rain and light.

The Portuguese Revolution of 1974 brought an outpouring of activity in all the arts. Photography festivals were established in the university cities of Braga and Coimbra; the Grupo Iris established a major photo magazine, and a gallery to rival António Sena's Ether, the most avant-garde in Lisbon; and Sena followed in his father's footsteps to produce a comprehensive documentation of Portuguese photographic history. By the 1980s, colour workers such as Daniel Blaufuks, Luisa Ferreira, Fernando Namora, and Albano da Silva were joining the ranks of international photographers. Nevertheless, the sombre monochrome strain in Portuguese photography persists. The texture of Paulo Nozolino's prints is so deep that effectively only he can print them dark enough. António Júlio Duarte (b. 1965), Jose Alfonso Furtado, Jorge Guerra, and Mariano Piçarra produce hauntingly twilit works in the same vein. Lucia Vasconcelos has treated the great 19th-century royal spas in a book and exhibition of evocative images of bygone times.

Portugal only belatedly recognized and celebrated its photographic tradition. In 1989, the medium's 150th anniversary was fêted with a major exhibition hosted by the Ministry of Culture. In addition a National Archive of Photography was founded, as a respository for the estates and bequests of Portuguese photographers, with the assistance of the photographic historian Jorge Calado. Work began on renovating Carlos Relvas's still extant but dilapidated ‘House of Photography’ at Golegã. A decade later, when Oporto became a European City of Culture, the Centro Portugues de Fotografia (CPF) was established in a former prison, under the direction of the photography writer and curator Tereza Siza.

— Amanda Hopkinson/Robin Lenman

Bibliography

• Hopkinson, A. (ed.), Reflections by Ten Portuguese Photographers (1996).
• Siza, M. T., and Weiermair, P. (eds.), Livro de viagens: Portugiesische Photographie seit 1854 (1997).
• Sena, A., História da imagem fotográfica em Portugal, 1839-1997 (1998).
• Carlos Relvas and the House of Photography (2003)

As it did elsewhere in Europe, ballet in Portugal grew out of performances at court for the Portuguese kings. In the 16th century an element of drama was injected into these court entertainments. However, the development of dance was severely restricted by decades of Spanish rule in the late 16th and early 17th century; dance was restricted to Jesuit theatrical performances. Guest artists from Vienna and Paris brought dance to Lisbon in the 1730s and 1740s but after the earthquake of 1755 cultural life was severely hampered. In 1793 a new Royal Opera House opened in Lisbon with a performance of an allegorical ballet, La Felicita lusitana, a form much admired in Lisbon at the time. The storylines were often based on real-life events and sometimes featured real people on stage, such as soldiers. The Romantic ballet was slow to take hold, despite seasons staged by Saint-Léon (1854-6). Even Diaghilev found it difficult when his company was forced to spend 1917-18 in Lisbon because of the First World War. Dance continued to stagnate well into the 20th century, when politics made it difficult to pursue new initiatives in the arts. It was not until the Gulbenkian Foundation established its own ballet company in Lisbon in 1965 that theatrical dance really took off. Today the independent dance scene is active with choreographers like Olga Roriz running their own companies. The Gulbenkian Ballet concentrates on contemporary choreography, while the Companhia Nacional de Bailado is more traditionally orientated.

Before psychoanalysis was institutionalized in Portugal, certain cultural events paved the way for the reception that Freud's doctrines were later to receive. It is widely accepted that the birth of psychoanalysis in France and Austria was influenced by experiments relating to hypnosis (Mesmer and Charcot). Similarly, we can say that in Portugal José Custódio de Faria (1756-1819), known as Abbé Faria, was an important precursor. Born in Goa, he studied theology in Lisbon and Rome before becoming a priest. He was in Paris in the troubled days of the French Revolution and the Empire, and it was there that he became a disciple of the magnetists. He studied under Mesmer and Puységur, and the theories he presented in his book, De la cause du sommeil lucide (1819, The Cause of Lucid Sleep), were ahead of his time — he was the first to abandon theories of magnetic fluids and anticipated his contemporaries in his descriptions of post-hypnotic suggestion.

The impact of Freud's discoveries began to be felt in Portugal at the beginning of the twentieth century. Egas Moniz (1874-1955) was the first to present the bases for Freud's theory. Moniz had taken an interest in sexology early in his career, and in 1901 he published a book entitled Sexual Life (Physiology and Pathology), which ran to several thousand copies in a few years. In 1925 he published a remarkable biography of Abbé Faria. Because Moniz was preoccupied with sexual life and hypnotism, it was only logical for him to take an interest in psychoanalysis also. In fact, between 1915 and 1925 he published several articles on psychoanalytic theory and method. In two of these articles Moniz described two long cures of neurotic patients, with whom he used the couch, free association, and dream interpretation. In both cases he managed to resolve the neurotic conflicts by having recourse to psychoanalytic psychotherapy. As time went by Moniz's activities centered increasingly on neurological problems. After he discovered cerebral angiography (1927), for which he won the Nobel Prize, he devoted himself entirely to neurology—to the exclusion of psychotherapy and the sexual life. We may well wonder how the psychoanalytic movement would have evolved in Portugal if Moniz, who really was a man of genius, had continued with his initial research and joined Freud's Viennese circle instead of going to work in Paris with Pierre Marie, Jules Déjerine, and Joseph Babinski.

Other psychiatrists, like Sobral Cid (1877-1941), a professor of psychiatry at the university of Lisbon, and Diogo Furtado (1906-1963), one of the most brilliant neuro-psychiatrists of his day, manifested great interest in the theory of psychoanalysis. But they did not continue Moniz's therapeutic work, nor his observations.

After these false starts, a Portuguese psychoanalytic movement finally saw the light of day in the 1950s. Portuguese physicians, beginning with Francisco Alvim and Pedro Luzes, went to Switzerland to train in Raymond de Saussure's Geneva group. They became full members of the Swiss Society and met in Geneva with Spanish analysts who were also in training there (Pedro Bofill, Pere Folch Mateu, and José Rallo Romero).

Together they decided to organize the Luso-Spanish Psychoanalytic Society, which the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA) recognized as a study group at the Paris Congress in 1957. Two years later this study group was admitted as a component society at the Copenhagen Congress. The Luso-Spanish Society continued to grow, with the addition of analysts who were generally trained abroad, but training progressively came to be set up in Spain and Portugal.

In 1966, the Iberian group split because of problems of distance and other difficulties, giving birth to the Portuguese study group. Although the IPA may have granted the Luso-Spanish Society the status of a component society somewhat prematurely, too much time was allowed to pass before the Portuguese study group was recognized as a provisional society (1977) and then a component society (at the Helsinki Congress in 1981). This can largely be explained by the change in the IPA statutes, which became increasingly demanding in terms of the required number of members, with benchmarks being used to establish intermediary stages.

The title "Portuguese Psychoanalytic Society" nevertheless began to be used (locally) in 1971. Prior to 1981, several international meetings and congresses had already been held in Portugal. In 1968, the twenty-ninth Congress of Romance-Language Psychoanalysts was organized in Lisbon. Pedro Luzes presented a report entitled "Thinking Disorders in Clinical Psychoanalysis." It was one of the first works from outside Great Britain to stress the importance of Bion's research into thinking. In 1978 the second Conference of the European Federation of Psychoanalysis was held in Estoril on the theme: "The Narcissism of the Psychoanalyst." In 1980, again in Estoril, the First World Congress on Infant Psychiatry, dedicated to the memory of René Spitz, focused on normal and pathological aspects in the first two years of infant life. The forty-fourth and fifty-fourth Congresses of French-Speaking Psychoanalysts met in Estoril and Lisbon, respectively, in 1984 and 1994.

Since 1989, biennial Iberian congresses of psychoanalysis have brought together the Portuguese Society, the Spanish Society (with its headquarters in Barcelona), and the Madrid Psychoanalytic Association. Together these institutions publish the Iberian Directory of Psychoanalysis in the Castilian language.

In 1975, the Portuguese Psychoanalytic Society inaugurated an Institute of Psycho-analysis. As a center for psychoanalytic treatment its main function is to provide assistance. It is also active in providing psychoanalytic training. In addition to ten consulting chambers, the institute has several meeting rooms and an ample library containing all the most essential psychoanalytic books and reviews. The Society publishes the Portuguese Review of Psychoanalysis every semester. The first issue appeared in 1985. In terms of scientific activities and dissemination of psychoanalysis, it is important to mention the scientific encounters that usually take place twice a year, called symposia (when predominantly clinical) and seminars (when predominantly cultural).

The problem of schools and divergent currents in psychoanalysis made its presence felt in Portugal, as everywhere else, though perhaps less acutely than in other countries, probably because in the context of a small society deep rifts and intense rivalries run the risk of destroying the analytic group. In the period between the 1940s and the 1980s, when the Portuguese Psychoanalytic Society was finding its feet, the opposition between so-called Freudian (also called "classical") analysts and Kleinian analysts came to a head. In the Freudian camp were Francisco Alvim (who trained in Raymond de Saussure's group in Geneva) and João dos Santos (who trained in Paris). Kleinian ideas were introduced to Portugal by Pedro Luzes who, while working in the same Geneva group as Alvim, was also analyzed by Marcelle Spira (a Swiss analyst who received Kleinian training in Argentina). The Freudian nucleus sought support from the Paris Psychoanalytic Society. Beginning in 1962, Pierre Luquet, its representative in Portugal, provided regular teaching for more than twenty years. The Kleinian group received more limited support from the British. Today the theoretical ideas of most of the members and students in the Portuguese Society are mixed, having both Freudian and Kleinian roots. This epistemological constitution is close to what the British call Group B. The Portuguese Psychoanalytic Society recently undertook the task of institutionalizing the training of child psychoanalysts among young analysts and candidates. To do so they relied mainly on French analysts (Florence Guignard, Annie Anzieu, Jean Bégoin, Didier Houzel, Donald Meltzer, and Antonino Ferro).

Several tendencies claiming to have a dynamic model of the mental continue to evolve along parallel lines. Some, being analytical, take their inspiration from the teachings of Jacques Lacan. Others are influenced by the systemic current (group analysis and family therapy). The psychoanalytic trend as defined above nevertheless dominates all of these movements.

Bibliography

Chemouni, Jacquy. (1990) Histoire du mouvement psychanalytique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Luzes, Pedro. (1979). Four recently discovered letters by Freud to a Portuguese correspondent. A contribution to the pre-history of psychoanalysis in Portugal. International Review of Psycho-Analysis, 6, 437-440.

—PEDRO LUZES

In 1385 a new dynasty came to power in Portugal under John I (João of Avis; 1357–1433; ruled 1385–1433). With the capture of the last Muslim stronghold in 1249, Portugal, located on the southwest corner of Europe and bordered by Castile to the east, had achieved roughly its modern boundaries. Though hit hard by the Black Death in 1348–1349, its population a century later had recovered to about one million inhabitants.

But the year 1450 marked a critical time in Portuguese history. Eighteen-year-old Afonso V (ruled 1438–1481), grandson of the founder of the Avis dynasty, was on the throne. The previous year (1449) his uncle, father-in-law, and former regent, Prince Pedro (1392–1449), had been killed at the battle of Alfarrobeira, the victims of civil war. Afonso V's reign might be described as the last hurrah for Portuguese royal chivalry. It clearly was the high-water mark for Portugal's upper nobility and higher clergy, who were lavishly rewarded by the monarch. Afonso V was greatly interested in campaigning in North Africa, personally leading Portuguese forces there in 1458, 1463–1464, and 1471. With the death of Henry (Enrique) IV of Castile in 1474, Afonso V took his kingdom down a dangerous path as he tried to take advantage of Castile's many civil wars. He attempted to marry his niece and Henry IV's young daughter and heiress Joan (Juana) and eventually join the thrones of Castile and Portugal. The plan had both immediate and long-term disastrous results, leading to a destructive Portuguese-Castilian war in the first place and in the second a series of Castilian-Portuguese marriages that eventually resulted in Philip II of Spain becoming king of Portugal.

In the aftermath of his father's lax reign, John (João) II (ruled 1481–1495) asserted strong royal authority. In this he was backed by the Cortes (meeting of the Three Estates) in Evora in 1481–1482. He cowed the titled nobility by having Dom Fernando, third duke of Bragança and head of Portugal's most powerful noble family (1430–1484), executed for treason in 1483 and by personally stabbing to death his own first cousin and brother-in-law, Dom Diogo, duke of Viseu and master of the Order of Christ (1462/63–1484), the following year. John II strongly promoted Portuguese expansion and discovery down the west coast of Africa. During the last years of his reign, tens of thousands of Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 sought refuge in Portugal, doubling the number already there. In the meantime, beginning in the 1440s, increasing numbers of black slaves were brought to Portugal from sub-Saharan Africa. Though a large number of the slaves were sold to Castile and other European kingdoms, many remained in the southern part of Portugal. It is estimated that by 1550 African slaves made up 10 percent of Lisbon's population.

John II was succeeded by Manuel I (ruled 1495–1521), the duke of Viseu's younger brother. Manuel brought the Bragança family back into favor. To appease his future wife Isabella and his Spanish in-laws Ferdinand of Aragón and Isabella of Castile, Manuel in late 1496 and 1497 forced Jews in Portugal to convert to Christianity. When Isabella died after childbirth in 1498, Manuel married her younger sister Maria that year. Two of their sons, John (João) (1502–1557) and Henry (Henrique) (1512–1580), later succeeded to the throne. Toward the end of his life, Manuel in 1518 married Leonor, sister of Emperor Charles V (ruled 1519–1558). Manuel usually receives high marks for administration, and he seems to have healed some of the wounds opened by his predecessor. He undertook major legal reforms, issuing new town charters (forais) and updating the earlier crown legislation of the Ordenações Afonsinas with the Ordenações Manuelinas (Manueline Ordinances). Manuel presided over a Portugal making important and often prosperous overseas contacts in East Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and Brazil.

John III's lengthy reign of thirty-six years (1521–1557) has long been the subject of controversy. Son of Manuel, he has been strongly criticized for establishing the Inquisition in Portugal beginning in 1536 and for inviting the newly founded Jesuits to Portugal in 1540. On the other hand, humanism reached its apogee in Portugal during his reign. The University of Coimbra was reformed, and the College of Arts was founded. However, John III was faced with a number of serious problems left behind by his father. Portugal, with a population of between 1 and 1.5 million inhabitants, was overextended and in serious financial difficulties, many caused by its rapid and widespread overseas expansion. The effects of the Council of Trent, 1545–1563, were also beginning to be felt.

John III was succeeded by his three-year-old grandson Sebastian (ruled 1557–1578), who required a double regency, that of his grandmother Catherine from 1557 to 1562 followed by that of his great-uncle Cardinal Henry (Henrique) from 1562 to 1568. Sebastian invaded Morocco twice, in 1574 and 1578. In August of the latter year he and more than seven thousand Portuguese nobility and soldiers died in battle. The childless Sebastian was succeeded by the aging Cardinal Henry, who died in January 1580. Though Dom António (1531–1595), prior of Crato, illegitimate son of Henry's brother Dom Luís (1506–1555), was acclaimed king of Portugal, the troops of Philip II of Spain (ruled 1556–1598) invaded Portugal, and the kingdom was acquired by conquest, inheritance, and bribery. Between 1580 and 1640 Portugal was under Spanish Habsburg rule, part of a dual monarchy. In 1581 at Tomar, Philip II swore to respect Portuguese sovereignty. Philip II spent less than two years in Portugal, and his son Philip III (ruled 1598–1621) visited briefly in 1619. Though most Portuguese seemed to accept Habsburg rule during its first few decades, economic crises and efforts at centralization by Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimental, count-duke of Olivares and chief minister of Philip IV (ruled 1621–1665), set the stage for Portuguese rebellion.

On 1 December 1640 John (João) (1604–1656), eighth duke of Bragança, was proclaimed King John IV (ruled 1640–1656). He married Luisa de Gusmão, daughter of Spain's eighth duke of Medina Sidonia. Generally well received as monarch, John IV encountered difficult times for Portugal and its overseas empire, but he managed to thwart Spanish efforts to restore Portugal to Habsburg rule. There was a period of twenty-eight years of warfare before peace was signed in 1668. When John IV died in 1656, he left behind a sickly and disturbed heir, Afonso VI (ruled 1656–1683). Queen Luisa held the regency until 1662, when a palace coup headed by Luis de Vasconcelos e Sousa (1636–1720), third count of Castelo Melhor, brought the eighteen-year-old Afonso to the throne. Vasconcelos e Sousa became Afonso's key adviser and the dominant figure in Portugal. Afonso VI married the French Marie-Françoise of Nemours in 1666.

A second palace coup ousted Afonso VI in November of 1667 and replaced him with his younger brother Peter (Pedro) (1648–1706), who, in turn, married his sister-in-law (after she had received an annulment) the following year. Peter held the title of regent until his imprisoned brother's death in 1683, after which he became known as Peter (Pedro) II until his own death in 1706. The unorthodox removal of his brother from power placed Peter in a difficult position for his almost thirty-nine years of rule, forcing him into playing the "politics of the possible" and sharing power with the titled nobility. After the death of Maria-Francisca in 1683, Pedro in 1687 married Maria Sophia of Neuburg, daughter of the elector palatine. In this marriage was born John (João) V (ruled 1706–1750), who married Maria Anna of Austria, daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I (ruled 1658–1705).

Though Portugal managed to stay out of the international conflicts of the late seventeenth century, the kingdom did become involved in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). Initially allied with Bourbon France and Spain, Portugal soon sided with England and the Grand Alliance and backed the cause of Archduke Charles of Austria (future Holy Roman emperor Charles VI, ruled 1711–1740). Though Portuguese troops briefly captured Madrid, parts of Portugal were devastated by the war. The war's end ushered in more than half a century of relative peace for Portugal, though the Portuguese, in league with the papacy and Venice, were credited with the victorious sea battle against the Turks off Cape Matapan along the Greek coast in 1717. John V's reign saw a flood of wealth from the Brazilian gold rush, and with this newfound wealth he attempted to imitate Louis XIV (ruled 1643–1715) and the French court. There was an important building and artistic boom, and Portugal's prestige rose at the courts of Europe, especially Rome, Paris, and Vienna. John V created a patriarchate in Lisbon and was granted the title of "Most Faithful" Majesty by Pope Benedict XIV (reigned 1740–1758). Voltaire remarked that when John wanted a building, he built a monastery, and when he wanted a mistress, he took a nun. John's son, Joseph (José) I (ruled 1750–1777), married Mariana Victoria, daughter of Philip V (ruled 1700–1724, 1724–1746) of Spain. Joseph's reign saw significant reforms, especially through the efforts of his chief minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo (1699–1782), better known as the marquês of Pombal. In the aftermath of the catastrophic earthquake that hit Lisbon on 1 November 1755 and killed between five thousand and ten thousand people, Pombal consolidated his power. The controversial statesman is best understood as an economic nationalist who was also determined to subordinate the titled nobility and the higher clergy to crown control. He greatly reduced the power of the Inquisition, making it little more than a state tribunal. In 1759 he expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and the entire Portuguese world.

Joseph I was succeeded by his daughter Maria I (ruled 1777–1816). Her royal consort was her husband and uncle Pedro, known as Peter (Pedro) III (ruled 1777–1786), who died in 1786. Shortly after the French Revolution, Maria showed evidence of mental instability. In 1792 her son Prince John (João) (1767–1826) was named regent. After her death in 1816, he became John (João) VI of Portugal.

Bibliography

Boxer, C. R. Salvador de Sá and the Struggle for Brazil and Angola, 1602–1686. London, 1952.

Hanson, Carl A. Economy and Society in Baroque Portugal, 1668–1703. Minneapolis, 1981.

Livermore, H. V. A History of Portugal. Cambridge, U.K., 1947.

Maxwell, Kenneth. Pombal: Paradox of the Enlightenment. Cambridge, U.K., 1995.

Oliveira Marques, A. H. de. History of Portugal. 2nd ed. New York, 1976.

Saunders, A. C. de C. M. A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge, U.K., 1982.

—FRANCIS A. DUTRA

Republic in southwestern Europe, bordered by Spain to the north and east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south and west. Its capital and largest city is Lisbon.

• Portugal has been a member of NATO since 1949.
• Famous for its explorers in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Portugal followed such exploration closely with colonization. By the middle of the sixteenth century, Portugal controlled a vast overseas empire, including Brazil.
• Portugal has been independent since the twelfth century, except for sixty years of Spanish rule in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

The international dialing code for Portugal is:   351

Local Time: Jul 26, 9:46 PM

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Although Portugal may be best known internationally for its two fortified wines (port and madeira) and its rosés (such as Lancer's and Mateus), it produces a large amount of red and white table wine. In fact, it ranks as one world's top ten wine-producing nations, even though it only has a population of around 10 million. Most of Portugal's wine is consumed within its borders-it usually ranks in the world's top five for per capita consumption. As a wine-producing country, Portugal's somewhat of an enigma. In one sense it's innovative-it was the first country to implement an appellation system with its região demarcada (rd), now called denominação de origem controlada (doc). It instituted this "demarcated region" system in 1756, almost 180 years before the French adopted their appellation d'origine contrôlée system. Yet Portugal has been so steeped in tradition that, in general, its winemaking techniques are far from progressive by today's standards. Those producers who have kept up with modern methods have done so outside Portugal's appellation system. To do so, they've adopted proprietary brand names and dropped the use of regional names. This means, of course, that there's no sense of regional identification as there is with French and Italian wines. Neither do the Portuguese have a labeling procedure to identify their wines by grape varieties, as is popular in some countries like Australia, Chile, and the United States. Portugal began to sharpen its image only after joining the European Economic Community in 1987 (which made European countries more accessible) and realizing that their table wines have tremendous export potential. It reviewed the structure of the Região Demarcada (now DOC) system, adding a few regions to increase the number of DOCs. The areas currently entitled to DOC status are Alenquer, alentejo Arruda,bairrada Bucelas (which produces full-­bodied white wines), carcavelos colares dão douro Lagoa, Lagos, lourinha madeira Obidoos, palmela port Portimão, ribatejo setúbal Tavora-Varosa, and