tai chi

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Definition

T'ai chi is a Chinese exercise system that uses slow, smooth body movements to achieve a state of relaxation of both body and mind.

Description

Developed originally in China as a self-defense strategy, or martial art, t'ai chi—the "supreme ultimate fist"—is practiced in modern times primarily as a gentle exercise technique. Described as "meditation in motion," t'ai chi consists of a standing person performing a series of postures or bodily movements in a slow and graceful manner, with each movement flowing without pause to the next. According to Chinese legend, the technique was created by a Taoist monk who was inspired as he watched a crane and a snake do battle. Impressed by the snake's ability to subtly and swiftly avoid the bird's thrusts, he devised a series of self-defense techniques that do not involve meeting the opponent's force with force, but rather stress evading the blow; causing the opponent's own momentum to work against him.

T'ai chi is an ancient form of exercise, about 2,000 years old, that at one point had over 100 separate movements or postures. In current practice, there are two popular versions, of 18 and 37 movements respectively. The fact that in China 10 million people practice some type of t'ai chi daily suggests that it is one of the most popular forms of exercise in the world. In the United States, t'ai chi is learned in classes in which students (or "players," as they are called in China) wear loose, comfortable clothing and either go barefoot or wear only socks or soft shoes on the feet. In China, t'ai chi is almost always practiced outdoors at dawn, and ideally near trees. Unlike other martial arts, t'ai chi is not competitive. Classes usually begin with a few minutes of standing meditation to calm the mind and gather energy. Following warm-up exercises, students are taught the basics of a particular form or posture. Learning forms is not easy, and it takes some time to master what looks like a simple position. Properly done postures are done in a relaxed, artful, and linked way, with the circular and rhythmic movements of one position flowing seamlessly into the next.

While strict attention to body position is critical, proper breathing is considered to be equally important. Just as movements are slow and continuous and without strain, breathing should be effortless yet deep. Finally, both mental and physical balance is considered essential to t'ai chi. The experienced practitioner of t'ai chi maintains perfect body balance throughout the exercise series. Altogether, the five essential qualities of t'ai chi are:

• Slowness. To develop awareness.
• Lightness. To make movements flow.
• Balance. To prevent body strain.
• Calmness. To maintain continuity.
• Clarity. To focus the mind.

T'ai chi has both physical and mental benefits. If done regularly, it improves muscle tone, flexibility, balance, and

coordination. Many older people find that it boosts their energy, stamina, and agility, sharpens their reflexes, and gives an overall sense of well-being. The calming and meditative aspects of t'ai chi allow many to experience its ability to relieve stress. Some claim t'ai chi to be a healing therapy, and it is often used to support other treatments for chronic conditions; arthritis and digestive disorders are just two examples. Like yoga, t'ai chi has several different styles to suit the individual. Also, it can eventually be done daily by oneself, and ultimately becomes a very personal endeavor. Most Westerners find it best to practice t'ai chi in the same place and at the same time of day, and those who enjoy it most are those who are not seeking major, dramatic breakthroughs, but rather who can take pleasure in small gains that accumulate over a long period of time.

— Leonard C. Bruno, PhD

A Chinese system of physical exercises designed especially for self-defense and meditation.

[Short for Chinese (Mandarin) taì jí quán : taì, highest + jí, reach + quán, boxing.]

A gentle, non-violent form of exercise partly derived from Chinese martial arts and Taoism (a Chinese philosophical system). It consists of 108 complex, slow-motion movements that encourage mental and physical harmony. T'ai chi is unlikely to place sufficient demands on your body to improve cardiovascular fitness, nor is it likely to help you lose weight. However, it may help to improve posture, making you appear taller, slimmer, and more poised.

Definition

T'ai chi is an ancient Chinese exercise with movements that originate in martial arts practice. While used as a type of self-defense in its most advanced form, t'ai chi is practiced widely for its health and relaxation benefits. Those in search of well being and a way to combat stress have made what has also been called "Chinese shadow boxing" one of the most popular low-intensity workouts around the world.

Origins

Also known as t'ai chi ch'uan (pronounced tie-jee chu-wan), the name comes from Chinese characters that translated mean "supreme ultimate force." The concept of t'ai chi, or the "supreme ultimate," is based on the Taoist philosophy of yin and yang, or the attraction of opposites. Yin and yang combine opposing but complementary forces to create harmony in nature. By using t'ai chi, a person can bring this principle of harmony into their own life. A disturbance in the flow of ch'i (qi), or the life force, is what traditional Chinese medicine regards as the cause of all diseases in the body. By enhancing the flow of ch'i, practitioners of t'ai chi believe that the exercise can promote physical health. Students of t'ai chi also learn how to use the exercise in the form of meditation and mental exercise by understanding how to center and focus their cerebral powers.

In the traditional Chinese understanding of health and well-being, t'ai chi is not regarded as a self-sufficient compartment of a person's life, as physical exercise often is viewed by Westerners. Instead, t'ai chi is considered part of an overall way of healthful living that includes massage, proper diet, meditation, and herbal medicines as needed.

The origins of t'ai chi are rooted deep in the martial arts and Chinese folklore, causing its exact beginnings to be based on speculation. The much-disputed founder of t'ai chi is Zhang San-feng (Chang San-feng), a Daoist (Taoist) monk of the Wu Tang Monastery, who, according to records from the Ming-shih (the official records of the Ming dynasty), lived sometime during the period from 1391–1459. Legend states that Zhang happened upon a fight between a snake and a crane, and, impressed with how the snake became victorious over the bird through relaxed, evasive movements and quick counterstrikes, he created a fighting form that copied the snake's strongest attributes. With his experience in the martial arts, Zhang combined strength, balance, flexibility, and speed to bring about the earliest form of t'ai chi.

Historians also link Zhang to joining yin-yang from Taoism and "internal" aspects together into his exercises. This feeling of inner happiness, or as a renowned engineering physicist and t'ai chi master, Dr. Martin Lee, states in his book The Healing Art of t'ai Chi, of becoming one with nature," remains a primary goal for those who practice t'ai chi. Although its ancient beginnings started as a martial art, t'ai chi was modified in the 1930s to the relaxing low-intensity exercise that continues to have the potential to be transformed into a form of self-defense, similar to karate or kung-fu.

Benefits

The art of t'ai chi is many things to the many who practice it. To some, it is a stretching exercise that incorporates a deep-breathing program. To others, it is a martial art—and beyond this, it is often used as a dance or to accompany prayer. While the ways in which it is used may vary, one of the main benefits for those who practice it remains universal—t'ai chi promotes good health. This sense of well-being complements t'ai chi's additional benefits of improved coordination, balance, and body awareness, while it also calms the mind and reduces stress. Those in search of harmony between the mind and the body practice "dynamic relaxation."

Dr. Martin Lee believes that the ancient art also holds healing powers. In his book, The Healing Art of T'ai Chi, he states: "By practicing t'ai chi and understanding chi and its breathing techniques, I was able to heal my allergies and other ailments." Lee contends that stress is the culprit of much of the pain and suffering that are a part of everyday life. The growing evidence that stress contributes to devastating physical and mental ailments has led Lee to teach a systematic, effective, and manageable way to restore both body and mind to a natural stress-free state. As of 1996, Lee had been teaching t'ai chi for 20 years to help his students with physical ailments that have been caused by stress. He believes that illness can be over-come through understanding the body as a mental and physical system, which is accomplished through t'ai chi.

While the martial arts offer very vigorous physical workouts and often result in injuries, the practice of t'ai chi is a good alternative to these sports without over-straining the body. Those with bad backs have also found t'ai chi to ease their discomfort.

Description

Zhang, the notable originator of t'ai chi, created a combination of movements and beliefs that led to the formation of the fundamental "Thirteen Postures" of his art. Over time, these primary actions have transformed into soft, slow, relaxed movements, leading to a series of movements known as the form. Several techniques linked together create a form. Proper posture is a key element when practicing t'ai chi to maintain balance. All of the movements used throughout the exercise are relaxed with the back straight and the head up.

Just as the movements of t'ai chi have evolved, so have the various styles or schools of the art. As the form has grown and developed, the difference in style along with the different emphasis from a variety of teachers has as well. A majority of the different schools or styles of t'ai chi have been given their founder's surname.

The principal schools of t'ai chi include:

• Chen style
• Hao (or Wu Shi) style
• Hu Lei style
• Sun style
• Wu style
• Yang style
• Zhao Bao style.

Many of the most commonly used groupings of forms are based on the Yang style of t'ai chi developed by Yang Pan-Hou (1837–1892). Each of the forms has a name, such as "Carry the Tiger to the Mountain," and as the progression is made throughout the many forms, the participant ends the exercise almost standing on one leg. While most forms, like "Wind Blows Lotus Leaves," has just one movement or part, others, like "Work the Shuttle in the Clouds," have as many as four. While the form is typically practiced individually, the movement called "Pushing Hands" is a sequence practiced by two people together.

Preparations

Masters of t'ai chi recommend that those who practice the art begin each session by doing a warm-up of gentle rotation exercises for the joints and gentle stretching exercises for the muscles and tendons. Some other suggestions to follow before beginning the exercise include: gaining a sense of body orientation; relaxation of every part of the body; maintaining smooth and regular breathing; gaining attention or feeling; being mindful of each movement; maintaining proper posture; and moving at the same pace throughout each movement. The main requirement for a successful form of t'ai chi is to feel completely comfortable while performing all of the movements.

Precautions

Although t'ai chi is not physically demanding, it requires close attention to one's posture. Those who want to practice the exercise should notify their physician before beginning. The physician will know whether the person is taking medications that might interfere with balance, or has a condition that could make a series of t'ai chi movements unwise to attempt.

Research & General Acceptance

While the reasons why t'ai chi is practiced vary, research has uncovered several reasons why it may help many medical conditions. For example, people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are encouraged to practice t'ai chi for its graceful slow sweeping movements. Its ability to combine stretching and range-of-motion exercises with relaxation techniques work well to relieve the stiffness and weakness in the joints of RA patients. An ongoing research program at Stanford University in California is evaluating the beneficial effects of t'ai chi on patients with fibromyalgia. A study of fibromyalgia patients in Georgia reported in 2003 that t'ai chi brought about significant improvement in the patients' control of their symptoms.

T'ai chi has also been shown to benefit patients with osteoarthritis (OA). A group of Korean researchers found that women diagnosed with OA showed significant improvement in their balance and abdominal muscle strength after a 12-week program of Sun-style t'ai chi.

In 1999, investigators from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, studied the effects of t'ai chi on patients with elevated blood pressure. Sixty-two sedentary adults with high-normal blood pressure or stage I hypertension who were aged 60 or older began a 12-week aerobic program or a light-intensity t'ai chi program. The exercise sessions both consisted of 30-minute sessions, four days a week. The study revealed that while the aerobics did lower the systolic blood pressure of participants, the t'ai chi group systolic level was also lowered by an average of seven points—only a point less than the aerobics group. Interestingly, t'ai chi hardly raises the heart rate while still having the same effects as an intense aerobics class.

In addition to lowering blood pressure, research suggests that t'ai chi improves heart and lung function. The exercise is linked to reducing the body's level of a stress hormone called cortisol, and to the overall effect of higher confidence for those who practice it. As a complementary therapy, t'ai chi is also found to enhance the mainstream medical care of cancer patients who use the exercise to help control their symptoms and improve their quality of life.

Physical therapists investigated the effects of t'ai chi among 20 patients during their recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery. The patients were placed into either the t'ai chi group or an unsupervised control group. The t'ai chi group performed classical Yang exercises each morning for one year, while the control group walked three times a week for 50 minutes each session. In 1999, the study reported that after one year of training, the t'ai chi group showed significant improvement in their cardiorespiratory function and their work rate, but the unsupervised control group displayed only a slight decrease in both areas.

T'ai chi has also shown to keep people from falling—something that happens to one in three people over age 65 each year. Researchers from Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, had dozens of men and women in their 70s and older learn the graceful movements of t'ai chi. The study discovered that those who learned to perform t'ai chi were almost 50% less likely to suffer falls within a given time frame than subjects who simply received feedback from a computer screen on how much they swayed as they stood. Those who suffer falls experience greater declines in everyday activities than those who do not fall, and are also at a greater risk of requiring placement in a nursing home or other type of assisted living. Researchers recommend the use of t'ai chi for its ability to help people raise their consciousness of how their bodies are moving in the environment around them. By raising awareness of how the body moves, people can focus on their relationship to their physical environment and situations they encounter everyday.

In addition to studying the cardiovascular and range-of-motion benefits of t'ai chi, researchers are also investigating its positive effects on the immune system. A team of scientists in California reported in 2003 that t'ai chi boosts the resistance of older people to the shingles virus—a virus that is both more common and more severe in the elderly.

Some research done in the United States focuses on the emotional and psychological benefits of t'ai chi. One recently discovered advantage of t'ai chi is its ability to hold people's interest longer than many other forms of exercise. One study in Oregon found that only 20% of people enrolled in a six-month t'ai chi program dropped out before the end, compared to an average of 55% for other forms of exercise. With regard to depression, a study of college students found that those who were taking t'ai chi classes had a lower rate of depression than students enrolled in other fitness programs.

One interesting recent change in the acceptance of t'ai chi in the United States and Canada is its growing popularity among men. In the 1970s and 1980s, many adult males regarded t'ai chi as a form of exercise that was not challenging enough for "real men." Since the late 1990s, however, more men have begun practicing t'ai chi in order to relieve stress or as a form of cross-training with another sport.

While the additional benefits of t'ai chi remain to be studied in the United States, it continues to be widely practiced in this and other Western countries. The ancient art maintains its prominence in China, where many people incorporate it into their daily routines at sunrise.

Training & Certification

Masters of t'ai chi are trained extensively in the various forms of the art by grandmasters who are extremely skillful of the exercise and its origins. For those who wish to learn t'ai chi from a master, classes are taught throughout the world in health clubs, community centers, senior citizen centers, and official t'ai chi schools. Before entering a class, the instructor's credentials should be reviewed, and they should be questioned about the form of t'ai chi they teach. Some of the more rigorous forms of the art may be too intense for older people, or for those who are not confident of their balance. Participants are encouraged to get a physician's approval before beginning any t'ai chi program.

There is no age limitation for those who learn t'ai chi, and there is no special equipment needed for the exercise. Participants are encouraged to wear loose clothing and soft shoes.

Resources

Books

Lee, Martin, Emily Lee, Melinda Lee, and Joyce Lee. The Healing Art of T'ai Chi. New York: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 1996.

Pelletier, Kenneth R., MD. The Best Alternative Medicine, Part I: Sound Mind, Sound Body. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.

Reid, Daniel. Chinese Herbal Medicine. Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1996.

Periodicals

Christou, E. A., Y. Yang, and K. S. Rosengren. "Taiji Training Improves Knee Extensor Strength and Force Control in Older Adults." Journals of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58 (August 2003): 763–766.

Cooper, Bob. "An Exercise in Vitality: Put Away Your Prejudices—T'ai Chi Ain't Just for Senior Citizens and Vegans." Men's Fitness 18 (September 2002): 86-91.

Filusch-Betts, Elaine. "The Effect of T'ai Chi on Cardiorespiratory Function in Patients with Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery." Physical Therapy (September 1999).

Irwin, M. R., J. L. Pike, J. C. Cole, and M. N. Oxman. "Effects of a Behavioral Intervention, T'ai Chi Chih, on Varicella-Zoster Virus Specific Immunity and Health Functioning in Older Adults." Psychosomatic Medicine 65 (September-October 2003): 824–830.

Li, F., K. J. Fisher, P. Harmer, and E. McAuley. "Delineating the Impact of T'ai Chi Training on Physical Function Among the Elderly." American Journal of Preventive Medicine 23 (August 2002): 92-97.

Song, R., E. O. Lee, P. Lam, and S. C. Bae. "Effects of T'ai Chi Exercise on Pain, Balance, Muscle Strength, and Perceived Difficulties in Physical Functioning in Older Women with Osteoarthritis: A Randomized Clinical Trial." Journal of Rheumatology 30 (September 2003): 2039–2044.

Taggart, H. M., C. L. Arslanian, S. Bae, and K. Singh. "Effects of T'ai Chi Exercise on Fibromyalgia Symptoms and Health-Related Quality of Life." Orthopaedic Nursing 22 (September-October 2003): 353–360.

Organizations

American Association of Oriental Medicine. 909 22nd St. Sacramento, CA 95816. (916) 451-6950. .

Canadian Taijiquan Federation. P.O. Box 421, Milton, Ontario L9T 4Z1. .

Patience T'ai Chi Association. 2620 East 18th Street, Brooklyn, NY 11235. (718) 332-3477. .

Other

WebMD. http://WebMD.com.

"Yang Style T'ai Chi Ch'uan." http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/styles.html.

[Article by: Beth Kapes; Rebecca J. Frey, PhD]

For more information on Tai Chi Chuan, visit Britannica.com.

One thousand years ago a "marriage" took place between an ancient philosophical religion and a new martial art. The religion was a unique form of Daoism (See Confucianism/Daoism) called Chi Kung ("excellence of energy"). It was devoted to physical health and peaceful, spiritual growth. But with warlords devastating the countryside and bandits coming down out of the mountains to prey upon the poor and helpless, even peaceful monks needed a way to defend themselves against aggression.

The result of this union, inspired by both peace and war, became known as T'ai Chi Ch'uan, or simply T'ai Chi. The movements of T'ai Chi, often described as "swimming in air," and the mental and spiritual focus required to perform them correctly, free the energies of the body to flow naturally. The physical movement is important, but of much more importance is the mental discipline. Human beings can do amazing things. But they usually don't. The reason, according to the practice of T'ai Chi, is that the energies needed to perform at peak capacity are blocked by negative thoughts and actions. The energy flow becomes dammed up, so to speak, and the resulting flood of health problems and mental fatigue can be overwhelming.

Western medicine usually tries to correct the illness at the point of the symptom. It treats, for instance, the symptom of depression with an active drug to counteract the depression. Chinese philosophy takes a different route. Depression is caused by a blockage of energy. It is not "natural" to be depressed. So the point of attack must come at the point of the blockage, not at the resultant symptom.

T'ai Chi sought to remove the blockage by letting nature fight the battle. Through martial art exercises it was discovered that the mind could be centered, fully involved in the present moment. When the mind is fully centered, fully at peace, the possibility to change, correct, and heal the body was realized. Change is natural. Everything changes constantly. But the human tendency is to resist change-to meet its force with more force. The resultant collision is typically Western. When someone hits us, we hit back, harder. The martial artist does the opposite. Force is resisted by yielding. The force of the opponent is thus used against him, to throw him off balance.

In the same manner, when illness strikes a blow, the Eastern approach is not to strike back with drugs, but to yield, to "go with the flow," throwing the illness off balance by yielding, allowing it to simply dissipate beneath the natural flow of energy, chi, which is the body's normal defense.

T'ai Chi is a ritual in which daily practice forms the habit of living fully in the moment and "going with the flow." The essence of T'ai Chi is not in learning a set of movements, although it may appear to observers that practitioners are doing just that. Neither is it in learning basic self-defense, although that can happen in the course of study. It is found instead in becoming aware of normal laws of flowing energy, of exploring natural health and wellness. That is why it is common to see, in the parks and public spaces of Chinese cities, people of all ages standing together at dawn and "swimming in air," practicing the movements they have learned, seemingly oblivious to one another. They are not "out there" somewhere. Just the opposite. They are "in here," totally in the moment, focused on the very essence of life, the energy that flows through us all.

Sources: Perfetti, Ron. “Overview and Benefits of T’ai Chi Ch’uan.” T’ai Chi Ch’uan with Ron Perfetti. http: //www.ronperfetti.com/overview.html. September 13, 2003.

A form of Chinese martial arts which is characterized by the grace and liquidity of its slowly unfolding movement. It has influenced several choreographers, most notably Glen Tetley, whose Embrace Tiger and Return to Mountain (1968) was directly inspired by T'ai Chi.

A system of ancient Chinese physical movements, designed to build up subtle energy in the body, resulting in spiritual development. For centuries it was a secret taught only to males in certain families, but by the middle of the nineteenth century it was openly taught in Peking.

The roots of T'ai Chi Ch'uan are said to go back to the breathing exercises of Taoist monks in the 2nd century B.C.E.

The purported founder of the actual Tai Chi Chuan system was a fifteenth century monk named Chang San-feng.

The yielding, supple philosophy behind T'ai Chi Ch'uan is summarized in the Tao Te Ching: "A man is born gentle and weak, at his death hard and stiff. Green plants are tender and filled with sap, at their death they are withered and dry. Therefore the stiff and unbending is the disciple of death. The gentle and yielding is the disciple of life. Thus an army without flexibility never wins a battle. A tree that is unbending is easily broken. The hard and strong will fall. The soft and weak will overcome."

In addition to the philosophy there are 37 basic exercises and postures that are repeated with variations, culminating in some 65 or 108 exercises fusing energetic with relaxed movement. During practice, it is important to be concerned with centering the body with meditation and relaxation. T'ai Chi Ch'uan is often linked with the study of the I Ching to enhance the philosophical aspects of the system.

Although T'ai Chi Ch'uan has been facetiously referred to as "shadow boxing," it often resembles a slow-motion ballet, and has been described as "yoga in movement." Like the asanas of hatha yoga, T'ai Chi Ch'uan takes the names of its forms from animals or events occurring in nature: "White Crane Spreads Its Wings," "Meteor Runs After Moon," or "Brush Dust Against the Wind." Both hatha yoga and T'ai Chi exercises encompass focused concentration and special breathing patterns. But while the graceful, flowing movements of T'ai Chi seem to superficially contrast with the asanas, developing forms of yoga movement bring the two regimens closer together.

T'ai Chi has become popular in the United States, as Americans realize the great health benefits of the practice. Most often the elderly do these exercises to regain strength and balance, greatly decreasing their chances of injuries from falls. The slow movements of T'ai Chi make it easy for everyone to practice and still gain health benefits.

Sources:

Cheng, Man-ching. Tai-Chi. Berkeley, Calif.: North Atlantic,1981.

Crompton, Paul. The T'ai Chi Workbook. Boston: Shambala Publishing, Inc., 1987.

Da Liu. T'ai Chi Ch'uan and I Ching. New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

——. T'ai Chi Ch'uan and Meditation. New York: Schocken Books, 1986.

Feng, Gia-Fu and Jane English. Lao Tsu: Tao Te Ching. New York: Vintage Books, 1972.

Perfetti, Ron. T'ai Chi Chuan Overview. http://www.maui.net/~taichi4u/overview.html. April 14, 2000.

Smith, Robert W. Chinese Boxing. New York: Kodansha, 1981.

T'ai Chi Magazine.http://www.tai-chi.com/. April 17, 2000.

"Tao & Tai Chi." http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/tao-chi.html. April 4, 2000.

"The Heaven and Earth Academy of T'ai Chi." http://www.taichinews.com/. April 6, 2000.

Tai chi chuan
(太極拳)

Yang Chengfu in a posture from the Yang style tai chi chuan solo form known as Single Whip c. 1931
Also known as	t'ai chi ch'üan; taijiquan
Focus	Hybrid
Hardness	Forms competition, light-contact (pushing hands, no strikes), full contact (striking, kicking, throws, etc.)
Country of origin	China
Creator	Disputed
Parenthood	Tao Yin
Famous practitioners	Chen Changxing, Yang Luchan, Chen Fake, Yang Chengfu, Wu Jianquan, Sun Lutang
Olympic sport	Demonstration only

Tai chi chuan
Traditional Chinese:	太極拳
Simplified Chinese:	太极拳
Literal meaning:	supreme ultimate fist
Transliterations Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin: tài jí quán - Wade-Giles: t'ai4 chi2 ch'üan2 Cantonese - Jyutping: taai3 gik6 kyun4

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Part of the series on Chinese martial arts
List of Chinese martial arts
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Kung fu (功夫) Wushu (武術)
Historical places
Shaolin Temple (少林寺) Wudang Mountains (武當山) Mount Emei (峨嵋山)
Historical people
Bodhidharma (菩提達摩) Zhang Sanfeng (張三丰) Five Elders (五祖) Yim Wing-chun (嚴詠春) Hung Hei-Gun (洪熙官) Fong Sai-yuk (方世玉) Dong Haichuan (董海川) Yang Lu-ch'an (楊露禪) Wu Ch'uan-yu (吳全佑) Chan Heung (陳享) Wong Fei Hung (黃飛鴻) Huo Yuanjia (霍元甲) Yip Man (葉問) Bruce Lee (李小龍)
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Tai chi chuan (traditional Chinese: 太極拳; simplified Chinese: 太极拳; pinyin: tàijíquán; Wade-Giles: t'ai⁴ chi² ch'üan²) is an internal Chinese martial art often practiced for health reasons. Tai chi is typically practiced for a variety of other personal reasons: its hard and soft martial art technique, demonstration competitions, health and longevity. Consequently, a multitude of training forms exist, both traditional and modern, which correspond to those aims. Some of tai chi chuan's training forms are well known to Westerners as the slow motion routines that groups of people practice together every morning in parks around the world, particularly in China.

Today, tai chi has spread worldwide. Most modern styles of tai chi trace their development to at least one of the five traditional schools: Chen, Yang, Wu/Hao, Wu and Sun. The origins and creation of tai chi are a subject of much argument and speculation. However, the oldest documented tradition is that of the Chen family from the 1820s.^[1][2]

Contents 1 Overview 2 History and styles 2.1 Family trees 2.1.1 Legendary figures 2.1.2 Five major classical family styles 2.1.3 Modern forms 3 Training and techniques 4 Modern tai chi 4.1 Tai chi as sport 5 Health benefits 5.1 Chronic conditions 5.2 Stress and mental health 6 Tai chi chuan in fiction 7 Tai chi chuan in modern idiom 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

Overview

The term t'ai chi ch'uan literally translates as "supreme ultimate fist", "boundless fist," "great extremes boxing", or simply "the ultimate" (note that 'chi' in this instance is the Wade-Giles of Pinyin jí, not to be confused with the use of ch'i / qì in the sense of "life-force" or "energy"). The concept of the Taiji "supreme ultimate" appears in both Taoist and Confucian Chinese philosophy where it represents the fusion or mother^[3] of Yin and Yang into a single ultimate, represented by the Taijitu symbol. Thus, tai chi theory and practice evolved in agreement with many of the principles of Chinese philosophy including both Taoism and Confucianism. Tai chi training first and foremost involves learning solo routines, known as forms (套路 taolu). While the image of tai chi chuan in popular culture is typified by exceedingly slow movement, many tai chi styles (including the three most popular, Yang, Wu and Chen) have secondary forms of a faster pace. Some traditional schools of tai chi teach partner exercises known as pushing hands, and martial applications of the postures of the form.

At the height of its development, around 1644 AD, tai chi had become a fast martial art that also valued slow movements meant to expand the mind and focus the body's energy. However, the Manchurians invaded the Chinese empire and created the Ch'ing Dynasty. When the new emperor saw the health and vitality of tai chi masters, he demanded he be taught the secrets of tai chi.^{[citation needed]} While refusal to teach the emperor would mean death, the tai chi masters decided to only teach the slow, flowing movements rather than the fast martial art aspect of tai chi. The Manchus, now believing that they had learned tai chi, began to practice it on a large scale. The Chinese, on the whole not knowing tai chi, saw their new leaders practicing tai chi and began to practice it themselves. This is how the slow flowing movements that are internationally recognized as tai chi came into practice.^{[citation needed]} But, just like shaolin kung fu, both the meditative and physical practices of tai chi were originally considered necessary for the complete practice of tai chi, referred to as temple style tai chi. However, many of the slow elements of tai chi have evolved into their own schools of practice, such as Yang style tai chi chuan.^{[citation needed]}

Tai chi chuan is generally classified as a form of traditional Chinese martial arts of the Neijia (soft or internal) branch. It is considered a soft style martial art — an art applied with internal power — to distinguish its theory and application from that of the hard martial art styles.^[4]

Since the first widespread promotion of tai chi's health benefits by Yang Shaohou, Yang Chengfu, Wu Chien-ch'uan and Sun Lutang in the early twentieth century,^[5] it has developed a worldwide following among people with little or no interest in martial training, for its benefit to health and health maintenance.^[6] Medical studies of tai chi support its effectiveness as an alternative exercise and a form of martial arts therapy.

Focusing the mind solely on the movements of the form purportedly helps to bring about a state of mental calm and clarity.^{[citation needed]} Besides general health benefits and stress management attributed to tai chi training, aspects of traditional Chinese medicine are taught to advanced tai chi students in some traditional schools.^[7] Some martial arts, especially the Japanese martial arts, use a uniform for students during practice. Tai chi chuan schools do not generally require a uniform, but both traditional and modern teachers often advocate loose, comfortable clothing and flat-soled shoes.^[8][9]

The physical techniques of tai chi chuan are described in the tai chi classics (a set of writings by traditional masters) as being characterized by the use of leverage through the joints based on coordination in relaxation, rather than muscular tension, in order to neutralize or initiate attacks.^{[citation needed]} The slow, repetitive work involved in the process of learning how that leverage is generated gently and measurably increases, opens the internal circulation (breath, body heat, blood, lymph, peristalsis, etc.)^{[citation needed]}

The study of tai chi chuan primarily involves three aspects^{[citation needed]}:

• Health: An unhealthy or otherwise uncomfortable person may find it difficult to meditate to a state of calmness or to use tai chi as a martial art. Tai chi's health training therefore concentrates on relieving the physical effects of stress on the body and mind. For those focused on tai chi's martial application, good physical fitness is an important step towards effective self-defense.
• Meditation: The focus and calmness cultivated by the meditative aspect of tai chi is seen as necessary in maintaining optimum health (in the sense of relieving stress and maintaining homeostasis) and in application of the form as a soft style martial art.
• Martial art: The ability to use tai chi as a form of self-defense in combat is the test of a student's understanding of the art. Tai chi chuan martially is the study of appropriate change in response to outside forces; the study of yielding and "sticking" to an incoming attack rather than attempting to meet it with opposing force.^{[citation needed]}

History and styles

See also: History of Chinese Martial Arts

A Chinese woman performs Yang style tai chi

There are five major styles of tai chi chuan, each named after the Chinese family from which it originated:

• Chen style (陳氏) (founded by Chen Wangting, 1580–1660)
• Yang style (楊氏) (founded by Yang Lu-ch'an, 1799-1872)
• Wu or Wu/Hao style of Wu Yu-hsiang (Wu Yuxiang) (武氏)
• Wu style of Wu Ch'uan-yu (Wu Quanyuo) and his son Wu Chien-ch'uan (Wu Jianquan) (吳氏)
• Sun style (孫氏) (founded by Sun Lu-t'ang, 1861–1932)

The order of verifiable age is as listed above. The order of popularity (in terms of number of practitioners) is Yang, Wu, Chen, Sun, and Wu/Hao.^[4] The first five major family styles share much underlying theory, but differ in their approaches to training.

There are now dozens of new styles, hybrid styles and offshoots of the main styles, but the five family schools are the groups recognised by the international community as being the orthodox styles. Other important styles are Zhaobao Tai Chi, a close cousin of Chen style, which has been newly recognised by Western practitioners as a distinct style, and the Fu style, created by Fu Chen Sung, which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and also incorporates movements from Pa Kua Chang.

The designation internal or nei chia martial arts is also used to broadly distinguish what are known as the external or wai chia styles based on the Shaolinquan styles, although that distinction is sometimes disputed by modern schools. In this broad sense, all styles of tai chi, as well as related arts such as Pa Kua Chang and Hsing-i Ch'üan, are therefore considered to be "soft" or "internal" martial arts. Many styles list in their history that tai chi was originally formulated by a Taoist monk called Zhang Sanfeng and taught by him in the Taoist monasteries at Wu Tang Shan.^[10]

When tracing tai chi chuan's formative influences to Taoist and Buddhist monasteries, there seems little more to go on than legendary tales from a modern historical perspective, but tai chi chuan's practical connection to and dependence upon the theories of Sung dynasty Neo-Confucianism (a conscious synthesis of Taoist, Buddhist and Confucian traditions, especially the teachings of Mencius) is claimed by some traditional schools.^[4] The philosophical and political landscape of that time in Chinese history is fairly well documented. Tai chi's theories and practice are therefore believed by these schools to have been formulated by the Taoist monk Zhang Sanfeng in the 12th century, at about the same time that the principles of the Neo-Confucian school were making themselves felt in Chinese intellectual life.^[4] In these legends, Zhang Sanfeng as a young man studied Tao Yin (導引, Pinyin dǎoyǐn) breathing exercises from his Taoist teachers^[11] and martial arts at the Buddhist Shaolin monastery,^[12] eventually combining the martial forms and breathing exercises to formulate the soft or internal principles we associate with tai chi chuan and related martial arts. Zhang Sanfeng is also sometimes attributed with the creation of the original 13 Movements of Tai Chi Chuan. These 13 movements are in all forms of tai chi chuan. Its subsequent fame attributed to his teaching, Wu Tang monastery was known thereafter as an important martial center for many centuries, its many styles of internal kung fu preserved and refined at various Taoist temples.

Family trees

Wu style master Eddie Wu demonstrating Grasp The Bird's Tail at a tournament in Toronto, Canada

These family trees are not comprehensive. Names denoted by an asterisk are legendary or semi-legendary figures in the lineage; while their involvement in the lineage is accepted by most of the major schools, it is not independently verifiable from known historical records. The Cheng Man-ch'ing and Chinese Sports Commission short forms are derived from Yang family forms, but neither are recognized as Yang family tai chi chuan by standard-bearing Yang family teachers. The Chen, Yang and Wu families are now promoting their own shortened demonstration forms for competitive purposes.

Legendary figures

Zhang Sanfeng* c. 12th century NEIJIA
Wang Zongyue* 1733-1795

Five major classical family styles

Chen Wangting 1580–1660 9th generation Chen CHEN STYLE

Chen Changxing 1771–1853 14th generation Chen Chen Old Frame

Chen Youben c. 1800s 14th generation Chen Chen New Frame

Yang Lu-ch'an 1799–1872 YANG STYLE

Chen Qingping 1795–1868 Chen Small Frame, Zhaobao Frame

Yang Pan-hou 1837–1892 Yang Small Frame

Yang Chien-hou 1839–1917

Wu Yu-hsiang 1812–1880 WU/HAO STYLE

Wu Ch'uan-yu 1834–1902

Yang Shao-hou 1862–1930 Yang Small Frame

Yang Ch'eng-fu 1883–1936 Yang Big Frame

Li I-yü 1832–1892

Wu Chien-ch'üan 1870–1942 WU STYLE 108 Form

Yang Shou-chung 1910–85

Hao Wei-chen 1849–1920

Wu Kung-i 1900–1970

Sun Lu-t'ang 1861–1932 SUN STYLE

Wu Ta-k'uei 1923–1972

Sun Hsing-i 1891–1929

Modern forms

Yang Ch`eng-fu

Cheng Man-ch'ing 1901–1975 Short (37) Form

Chinese Sports Commission 1956 Beijing 24 Form

1989 42 Competition Form (Wushu competition form combined from Sun, Wu, Chen, and Yang styles)

Training and techniques

Yang Chengfu utilizing one of the many possible applications of the Single Whip technique.

As the name "tai chi chuan" is held to be derived from the Taiji symbol (Taijitu or T'ai chi t'u, 太極圖), commonly known in the West as the "yin-yang" diagram, tai chi chuan is therefore said in literature preserved in its oldest schools to be a study of yin (receptive) and yang (active) principles, using terminology found in the Chinese classics, especially the Book of Changes and the Tao Te Ching.^[4]

The core training involves two primary features: the first being the solo form (ch'üan or quán, 拳), a slow sequence of movements which emphasize a straight spine, abdominal breathing and a natural range of motion; the second being different styles of pushing hands (tui shou, 推手) for training movement principles of the form in a more practical way.

The solo form should take the students through a complete, natural range of motion over their center of gravity. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout the students' bodies, maintain flexibility through their joints and further familiarize students with the martial application sequences implied by the forms. The major traditional styles of tai chi have forms which differ somewhat cosmetically, but there are also many obvious similarities which point to their common origin. The solo forms, empty-hand and weapon, are catalogs of movements that are practiced individually in pushing hands and martial application scenarios to prepare students for self-defense training. In most traditional schools, different variations of the solo forms can be practiced: fast–slow, small circle–large circle, square–round (which are different expressions of leverage through the joints), low sitting/high sitting (the degree to which weight-bearing knees are kept bent throughout the form), for example.

Two Western students receive instruction in Pushing hands, one of the core training exercises of tai chi

The philosophy of the style is that if one uses hardness to resist violent force, then both sides are certain to be injured at least to some degree. Such injury, according to tai chi theory, is a natural consequence of meeting brute force with brute force. Instead, students are taught not to directly fight or resist an incoming force, but to meet it in softness and follow its motion while remaining in physical contact until the incoming force of attack exhausts itself or can be safely redirected, meeting yang with yin. Done correctly, this yin/yang or yang/yin balance in combat, or in a broader philosophical sense, is a primary goal of tai chi chuan training. Lao Tzu provided the archetype for this in the Tao Te Ching when he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong."

Tai chi's martial aspect relies on sensitivity to the opponent's movements and center of gravity dictating appropriate responses. Effectively affecting or "capturing" the opponent's center of gravity immediately upon contact is trained as the primary goal of the martial tai chi student.^[13] The sensitivity needed to capture the center is acquired over thousands of hours of first yin (slow, repetitive, meditative, low impact) and then later adding yang ("realistic," active, fast, high impact) martial training; forms, pushing hands and sparring. Tai chi trains in three basic ranges, close, medium and long, and then everything in between. Pushes and open hand strikes are more common than punches, and kicks are usually to the legs and lower torso, never higher than the hip depending on style. The fingers, fists, palms, sides of the hands, wrists, forearms, elbows, shoulders, back, hips, knees and feet are commonly used to strike, with strikes to the eyes, throat, heart, groin and other acupressure points trained by advanced students. Joint traps, locks and breaks (chin na) are also used. Most tai chi teachers expect their students to thoroughly learn defensive or neutralizing skills first, and a student will have to demonstrate proficiency with them before offensive skills will be extensively trained. There is also an emphasis in the traditional schools that one is expected to show wu te (武德), martial virtue or heroism, to protect the defenseless and show mercy to one's opponents.^[14]

In addition to the physical form, martial tai chi chuan schools also focus on how the energy of a strike affects the other person. Palm strikes that physically look the same may be performed in such a way that it has a completely different effect on the target's body. A palm strike could simply push the person forward, be focused in such a way as lift them vertically off the ground breaking their center of gravity, or terminate the force of the strike within the other person's body with the intent of causing internal damage.

Other training exercises include:

• Weapons training and fencing applications employing the straight sword known as the jian or chien or gim (jiàn 劍), a heavier curved sabre, sometimes called a broadsword or tao (dāo 刀, which is actually considered a big knife), folding fan also called san, wooden staff (2 m) known as kun (棍), 7 foot (2 m) spear and 13 foot (4 m) lance (both called qiāng 槍). More exotic weapons still used by some traditional styles are the large Dadao or Ta Tao (大刀) and Pudao or P'u Tao (撲刀) sabres, halberd (jǐ 戟), cane, rope-dart, three sectional staff, Wind and fire wheels, lasso, whip, chain whip and steel whip.
• Two-person tournament sparring (as part of push hands competitions and/or sanshou 散手);
• Breathing exercises; nei kung (內功 nèigōng) or, more commonly, ch'i kung (氣功 qìgōng) to develop ch'i (氣 qì) or "breath energy" in coordination with physical movement and post standing or combinations of the two. These were formerly taught only to disciples as a separate, complementary training system. In the last 50 years they have become better known to the general public.

Modern tai chi

Outdoor practice in Beijing's Temple of Heaven.

Tai chi classes have become popular in hospitals, clinics, community and senior centers in the last twenty years or so, as baby boomers age and the art's reputation as a low stress training for seniors became more well-known.^[15][16] As a result of this popularity, there has been some divergence between those who say they practice tai chi primarily for self-defense, those who practice it for its aesthetic appeal (see wushu below), and those who are more interested in its benefits to physical and mental health. The wushu aspect is primarily for show; the forms taught for those purposes are designed to earn points in competition and are mostly unconcerned with either health maintenance or martial ability. More traditional stylists believe the two aspects of health and martial arts are equally necessary: the yin and yang of tai chi chuan. The tai chi "family" schools therefore still present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students in studying the art.^[17]

Along with Yoga, tai chi is one of the fastest growing fitness and health maintenance activities in the United States.^[16]

Tai chi as sport

In order to standardize tai chi chuan for wushu tournament judging, and because many of the family tai chi chuan teachers had either moved out of China or had been forced to stop teaching after the Communist regime was established in 1949, the government sponsored the Chinese Sports Committee, who brought together four of their wushu teachers to truncate the Yang family hand form to 24 postures in 1956. They wanted to retain the look of tai chi chuan but create a routine that was less difficult to teach and much less difficult to learn than longer (generally 88 to 108 posture), classical, solo hand forms. In 1976, they developed a slightly longer form also for the purposes of demonstration that still didn't involve the complete memory, balance and coordination requirements of the traditional forms. This was the Combined 48 Forms that were created by three wushu coaches, headed by Professor Men Hui Feng. The combined forms were created based on simplifying and combining some features of the classical forms from four of the original styles; Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun. As tai chi again became popular on the mainland, more competitive forms were developed to be completed within a six-minute time limit. In the late-1980s, the Chinese Sports Committee standardized many different competition forms. They developed sets to represent the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee of wushu coaches in China. All sets of forms thus created were named after their style, e.g., the Chen Style National Competition Form is the 56 Forms, and so on. The combined forms are The 42 Form or simply the Competition Form. Another modern form is the 67 movements Combined Tai-Chi Chuan form, created in the 1950s, it contains characteristics of the Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen and Fu styles blended into a combined form. The wushu coach Bow Sim Mark is a notable exponent of the 67 Combined.

These modern versions of tai chi chuan (sometimes listed using the pinyin romanization Tai ji quan) have since become an integral part of international wushu tournament competition, and have been featured in several popular Chinese movies starring or choreographed by well known wushu competitors, such as Jet Li and Donnie Yen.

In the 11th Asian Games of 1990, wushu was included as an item for competition for the first time with the 42 Form being chosen to represent tai chi. The International Wushu Federation (IWUF) applied for wushu to be part of the Olympic games, but will not count medals.^[18]

Practitioners also test their practical martial skills against students from other schools and martial arts styles in pushing hands and sanshou competition.

Health benefits

Tai chi is promoted as a method for the elderly or infirm to reclaim the natural vigor of youth.

Before tai chi's introduction to Western students, the health benefits of tai chi chuan were largely explained through the lens of traditional Chinese medicine, which is based on a view of the body and healing mechanisms not always studied or supported by modern science. Today, tai chi is in the process of being subjected to rigorous scientific studies in the West.^[19] Now that the majority of health studies have displayed a tangible benefit in some areas to the practice of tai chi, health professionals have called for more in-depth studies to determine mitigating factors such as the most beneficial style, suggested duration of practice to show the best results, and whether tai chi is as effective as other forms of exercise.^[19]

In September of 2009 the National Institutes of Health will hold its first ever Mind-Body Week, and among the invited keynote speakers is Roger Jahnke (co-founder of the National Qigong Association), and Bill Douglas (Founder of World Tai Chi & Qigong Day), who will speak on the usefulness of tai chi and qigong as part of modern healthcare, and how it may save society huge sums of money in future health costs by spreading the use of tai chi and qigong in modern society at all levels.

Chronic conditions

Researchers have found that intensive tai chi practice shows some favorable effects on the promotion of balance control, flexibility, cardiovascular fitness and reduced the risk of falls in both healthy elderly patients,^[20] and those recovering from chronic stroke,^[21], heart failure, high blood pressure, heart attacks, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's. Tai chi's gentle, low impact movements burn more calories than surfing and nearly as many as downhill skiing.^[22]

Tai chi, along with yoga, has reduced levels of LDLs 20–26 milligrams when practised for 12–14 weeks.^[23] A thorough review of most of these studies showed limitations or biases that made it difficult to draw firm conclusions on the benefits of tai chi.^[19] A later study led by the same researchers conducting the review found that tai chi (compared to regular stretching) showed the ability to greatly reduce pain and improve overall physical and mental health in people over 60 with severe osteoarthritis of the knee.^[24] In addition, a pilot study, which has not been published in a peer-reviewed medical journal, has found preliminary evidence that tai chi and related qigong may reduce the severity of diabetes.^[25]

A recent study evaluated the effects of two types of behavioral intervention, tai chi and health education, on healthy adults, who after 16 weeks of the intervention, were vaccinated with VARIVAX, a live attenuated Oka/Merck Varicella zoster virus vaccine. The tai chi group showed higher and more significant levels of cell-mediated immunity to varicella zoster virus than the control group which received only health education. It appears that tai chi augments resting levels of varicella zoster virus-specific cell-mediated immunity and boosts the efficacy of the varicella vaccine. Tai chi alone does not lessen the effects or probability of a shingles attack, but it does improve the effects of the varicella zoster virus vaccine.^[26]

Stress and mental health

There have also been indications that tai chi might have some effect on noradrenaline and cortisol production with an effect on mood and heart rate. However, the effect may be no different than those derived from other types of physical exercise.^[27] In one study, tai chi has also been shown to reduce the symptoms of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in 13 adolescents. The improvement in symptoms seem to persist after the tai chi sessions were terminated.^[28]

In June, 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by researchers at the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies (88 involving Tai Chi) of five broad categories of meditation: mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, Tai Chi, and Qi Gong. The report concluded that "[t]he therapeutic effects of meditation practices cannot be established based on the current literature," and "[f]irm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence.(p. 6) ^[29]

Tai chi chuan in fiction

A Yang style teacher corrects his student's form

• Tai chi and neijia in general play a large role in many wuxia novels, films, and television series; among which are Yuen Wo Ping's Tai Chi Master starring Jet Li, and the popular Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. A movie that features a traditional tai chi chuan teacher as the lead character is Pushing Hands, Ang Lee's first western film. Internal concepts may even be the subject of parody, such as in Shaolin Soccer and Kung Fu Hustle. Fictional portrayals often refer to Zhang Sanfeng and the Taoist monasteries on Wudangshan.
• Tai chi play a role in the book series the Five Ancestors as a Chinese Workout that many people do, especially elderly citizens.
• Tai Chi is the basis for the art of Waterbending in the animated television series "Avatar: The Last Airbender".

Tai chi chuan in modern idiom

Mainly in China, Taiwan and Singapore, and perhaps in parts where there are large communities of ethnic Chinese, the idiomatic expression 'to play taiji', is used to refer to people trying to politely push or divert responsibility away from themselves.

See also

• Asahi Health
• Chi Kung
• Chinese martial arts - Kung fu
• International Kung Fu Federation
• Kinesiotherapy
• Lee style Tai Chi Chuan
• List of Tai Chi Chuan forms
• Liuhebafa
• T'ai chi ch'uan philosophy
• Taijijian
• Taoist Tai Chi
• Tchoung Ta-chen
• World Tai Chi and Qigong Day
• Wudang Tai Chi Chuan
• Wudangquan

Notes

1. ^ Wile 1995
2. ^ Wile 1983
3. ^ Cheng 1993, pg. 21
4. ^ ^{a b c d e} Wile, Douglas (2007). "Taijiquan and Taoism from Religion to Martial Art and Martial Art to Religion". Journal of Asian Martial Arts (Via Media Publishing) 16 (4). ISSN 1057-8358. 
5. ^ Wile 1995
6. ^ "T'ai Chi gently reduces blood pressure in elderly" (required registration). The Lancet. http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605750121/fulltext. Retrieved on 2007-07-02. 
7. ^ Wu 2006
8. ^ Lam, Dr. Paul. "What should I wear to practice Tai Chi?". Tai Chi Productions. http://taichiproductions.com/articles/display.php?articleid=50. Retrieved on 2008-07-14. 
9. ^ Fu 2006
10. ^ Wile 1995
11. ^ Lao, Cen (April 1997). "The Evolution of T'ai Chi Ch'uan". T’AI CHI The International Magazine of T’ai Chi Ch’uan (Wayfarer Publications) 21 (2). ISSN 0730-1049. 
12. ^ Eberhard 1986
13. ^ Wu 2006
14. ^ Wile 1995
15. ^ Yip, Y. L. (Autumn 2002). "Pivot – Qi". The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health and Fitness (Insight Graphics Publishers) 12 (3). ISSN 1056-4004. 
16. ^ ^{a b} "SGMA 2007 Sports & Fitness Participation Report From the USA Sports Participation Study" (PDF). SGMA. 2. http://www.sgma.com/associations/5119/files/topline07.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 
17. ^ Woolidge, Doug (June 1997). "T’AI CHI". The International Magazine of T’ai Chi Ch’uan (Wayfarer Publications) 21 (3). ISSN 0730-1049. 
18. ^ "Wushu likely to be a "specially-set" sport at Olympics". Chinese Olympic Committee. 2006. http://en.olympic.cn/08beijing/bocog/2006-10-17/945504.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
19. ^ ^{a b c} Wang, C; Collet JP & Lau J (2004). "The effect of Tai Chi on health outcomes in patients with chronic conditions: a systematic review". Archives of Internal Medicine 164 (5): 493–501. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.5.493. PMID 15006825. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15006825. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
20. ^ Wolf, SL; Sattin RW & Kutner M (2003). "Intense tai chi exercise training and fall occurrences in older, transitionally frail adults: a randomized, controlled trial". Journal of the American Geriatric Society 51 (12): 1693–701. doi:10.1046/j.1532-5415.2003.51552.x. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14687346. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
21. ^ Au-Yeung, PhD, Stephanie S. Y.; Christina W. Y. Hui-Chan, PhD, and Jervis C. S. Tang, MSW (January 7, 2009). "Short-form Tai Chi Improves Standing Balance of People With Chronic Stroke". Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. doi:10.1177/1545968308326425. http://nnr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1545968308326425v1. 
22. ^ "Calories burned during exercise". NutriStrategy. http://www.nutristrategy.com/activitylist3.htm. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
23. ^ Brody, Jane E. (2007-08-21). "Cutting Cholesterol, an Uphill Battle". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/21/health/21brod.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1190862080-FWYKVQhkU70Kz/P+y3V9pw. Retrieved on 2008-07-14. 
24. ^ "Tai chi helps cut pain of knee arthritis: study". Reuters. October 25, 2008. http://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyleMolt/idUSTRE49P00R20081026. Retrieved on 2008-10-26. "Those who did tai chi experienced greater pain reduction, less depression and improvements in physical function and overall health, researchers led by Dr. Chenchen Wang of Tufts Medical Center in Boston reported..." 
25. ^ Pennington, LD (2006). "Tai chi: an effective alternative exercise". DiabetesHealth. http://www.diabeteshealth.com/read/2006/07/01/4788.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
26. ^ Irwin, MR; Olmstead, R & Oxman, MN (2007). "Augmenting Immune Responses to Varicella Zoster Virus in Older Adults: A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Tai Chi". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 55 (4): 511–517. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01109.x. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01109.x. Retrieved on 2007-04-08. 
27. ^ Jin, P (1989). "Changes in Heart Rate, Noradrenaline, Cortisol and Mood During Tai Chi". Journal of Psychosomatic Research 33 (2): 197–206. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(89)90047-0. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8V-46042FC-63&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1989&_rdoc=9&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235096%231989%23999669997%23320242%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5096&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=62495c42abfefc92d2e998a153f93ff6. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
28. ^ Hernandez-Reif, M; Field, TM & Thimas, E (2001). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: benefits from Tai Chi". Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies 5 (2): 120–123. doi:10.1054/jbmt.2000.0219. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WHF-45BCC1C-15&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2001&_rdoc=7&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236849%232001%23999949997%23289835%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6849&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=f&_ct=10&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4548a46f902e7d61309ba794e3a8857b. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
29. ^ Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N,Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP. "Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research". Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 155. (Prepared by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-02-0023.) AHRQ Publication No. 07-E010. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. June 2007.

References

• Cheng Man-ch'ing. Cheng-Tzu's Thirteen Treatises on T'ai Chi Ch'uan (1993) North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-0938190455
• Davis, Barbara (2004). Taijiquan Classics: An Annotated Translation. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1556434310. 
• Eberhard, Wolfram (1986). A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. ISBN 0415002281. 
• Fu, Zhongwen (2006-06-09). Mastering Yang Style Taijiquan. Berkeley, California: Blue Snake Books. ISBN 1583941525. 
• Jou, Tsung-Hwa (1998). Tao of Tai Chi Chuan, 3rd ed.. Tuttle. ISBN 978-0804813570. 
• T'ai Chi Magazine bimonthly. Wayfarer Publications. 2008. 
• Taijiquan Journal. Taijiquan Journal. 2008. 
• Wile, Douglas (1983). Tai Chi Touchstones: Yang Family Secret Transmissions. Sweet Ch'i Press. ISBN 978-0912059013. 
• Wile, Douglas (1995). Lost T'ai-chi Classics from the Late Ch'ing Dynasty (Chinese Philosophy and Culture). State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0791426548. 
• Wu, Kung-tsao (2006). Wu Family T'ai Chi Ch'uan (吳家太極拳). Chien-ch’uan T’ai-chi Ch’uan Association. ISBN 0-9780499-0-X. 
• Yang, Yang (2008). Taijiquan: The Art of Nurturing, The Science of Power. Zhenwu Publication; 2nd edition. ISBN 978-0974099019. 

Further reading

• "Medical Research on T'ai Chi & Qigong (Chi Kung)". World Tai Chi Day. http://www.worldtaichiday.org/WTCQDHlthBenft.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
• "Tai Chi Boosts Immunity, Improves Physical Health in Seniors". Acupuncture Today 04 (11). 2003. http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/archives2003/nov/11taichi.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
• "Tai Chi: With slow movements as fluid as silk, the gentle Chinese practice of Tai Chi seems tailor-made for easing sore joints and muscles.". Arthritis Today. http://ww2.arthritis.org/resources/arthritistoday/2000_archives/2000_07_08_taichi.asp. Retrieved on 2007-07-09. 
• "World T'ai Chi & Qigong Day's Headline News". World Tai Chi Day. http://www.worldtaichiday.org/HeadlineNews.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-13. 
• Carradine, David; Nakahara, David (1995). David Carradine's Tai Chi Workout. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0805037675. http://www.amazon.com/David-Carradines-Tai-Chi-Workout/dp/0805037675/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244668764&sr=1-2#reader. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tai chi chuan

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Tai chi chuan

• Tai Chi and Qigong featured in keynote speeches at the 1ST Annual Mind-Body Week: The Science and Practice of Stress Management Modalities Agenda, September 8-11, 2009, at the plenary session on the main campus of the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
• Prime Minister Wen Jiabao of the PRC practices tai chi during a diplomatic visit to Japan at The New York Times
• Is Taijiquan Effective For Fighting?
• Ch'ang Style Tai Chi Chuan and its relationship to Shuai Chiao
• Tai Chi 'improves body and mind' at BBC

Videos of the major styles

• Yang Zhenduo's Yang style at YouTube
• Wu Yinghua's Wu Jianquan style
• Chen Shitong's Chen style at Google Video
• Sun Jianyun's Sun style
• Hao Shaoru's Wu/Hao style
• 24-form Beijing form
• 108-form Yang Tai Chi Chuan

Contemporary Wushu v • d • e
Main Taolu Events	Sparring
Changquan • Dao • Qiang • Jian • Gun	Sanda
Nanquan • Nandao • Nangun	Related
Taijiquan • Taijijian	International Wushu Federation
	World Wushu Championships

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