1295

1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300

political events

Castile and León's Sancho IV dies at Toledo April 25 at age 37 after an 11-year reign marked by continuous dispute and violence. Sancho el Bravo is succeeded by his 9-year-old son, whose minority will be a period of anarchy but who will reign until 1312 as Ferdinand IV (el Emplazado, the Summoned).

England's Model Parliament sits at London, convened by a summons to bishops, abbots, earls, barons, knights, burgesses, and representatives of all the realm's chapters and parishes: "Quod omnes tangit ab omnibus approbetur," says the summons ("Let that which touches all be approved by all"), but most of the clergy soon quits to form its own assembly, or convocation, and the only Church people left are the great prelates, who attend in a feudal rather than ecclesiastical capacity.

Scotland's John de Balliol ignores a summons to attend England's Edward I (see 1292); he forms an alliance in October with France's Philippe IV, thus provoking an invasion by English forces, who kill men, women, and children (see 1296).

Welsh nobleman Gilbert de Clare, 8th earl of Gloucester (and 9th earl of Clare), dies at Monmouth, Wales, December 7 at age 52.

Sicily's parliament elects the Aragonese regent as its king December 11 after he has refused to yield the island to Pope Boniface VIII. Appointed regent 4 years ago by his brother, Aragon's Jaime II, the 23-year-old Federico will reign as Federico II (see 1296).

Marguerite de Provence dies at Paris December 21 at age 74; widow of the late Louis IX, she has worked to thwart the ambitions of her brother-in-law Charles d'Anjou.

Persia's fifth Mongol il-khan Gaykhatu dies after a 4-year reign, is succeeded briefly by his cousin Baydu, and then by his 23-year-old son Ghazan, who is formally enthroned Novemer 3 and will reign until 1304, abandoning Buddhism, adopting Islam, showing no mercy in suppressing revolts against his authority, and warring with Egypt. Court physician Rashid ad-Din has been converted from Judaism to Islam and will become Ghazan's vizier in 1298.

exploration, colonization

Marco Polo returns to Venice, having traveled from 1275 to 1292 in the service of the late Kublai Khan. He brings home spices, oriental cooking ideas, descriptions of Brahma cattle, reports of cannibalism, and curious notions of diet.

religion

Pope Boniface VIII issues a bull forbidding any religious order to wear striped clothing (see 1155). Stripes have become associated with hangmen, jesters, lepers, and prostitutes; crowds have jeered at Carmelite monks and called them "barred brothers" ("frères barrés"); most Carmelites have given up their striped cloaks and wear white ones, but a cobbler-clergyman at Rouen will be condemned to death in 1310 for wearing "the devil's cloth."

Milan's archbishop Ottone Visconti dies at age 88 (approximate) with his great-nephew Matteo Visconti in control of the city (see politics, 1302).

art

Painting: Madonna with St. Francis by Giovanni Cimabué.

theater, film

Theater: The Harrowing of Hell is an English miracle play.

architecture, real estate

Construction begins at Florence on the Church of Santa Croce designed by Arnolfo di Cambio.

food and drink

Bohemia's Wenceslas II, now 24, grants 260 burghers of Pilsen the right to brew and sell beer (see 1842).

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