1296
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Scotland's John de Balliol assembles an army at Selkirk in March, England's Edward I invades Scotland, his forces sack Berwick and massacre its citizens, the earl of Surrey routs Balliol's army April 27 at the Battle of Dunbar, and by July 11 Edinburgh Castle has fallen and Balliol has surrendered to a bishop representing Edward (see 1295). Balliol appears before Edward at Montrose and abdicates his throne, he is stripped of his royal regalia at Brechin, the English take him home in chains with his son Edward, they move the Scottish coronation stone from Scone to Westminister, Edward I continues his journey to the north, Balliol is sent first to Hereford and then to the Tower of London, and he will remain in captivity until 1299 (see Wallace, 1297).
Floris V, count of Holland and Zeeland, allies himself with France's Philippe IV at the suggestion of his 49-year-old cousin Jan van Avesnes, count of Hainaut, who shares his hostility toward Guy de Dampierre, count of Flanders; now 41, Floris took over West Frisia 7 years ago, he has had friendly relations with England's Edward I since childhood, and his country has expanded and prospered in his long reign. Discontented nobles take him prisoner with encouragement from the English king, Dutch peasants stop them from taking him to England, and he is murdered in the castle at Muiderberg June 27. Floris is succeeded by his 15-year-old son, who will die in 1299 with Jan van Avesnes as governor, and Jan will rule from then until his death in 1304 as Jan II (see 1300).
Sicily's Federico II is crowned March 25 (see 1295); he will reign until his death in 1336, but Carlos II of Naples attacks him, beginning a 6-year war.
The Medici family that will come to control Florence begins its ascent as the city elects Ardingo de' Medici gonfaloniere (standard bearer). The family is not of noble birth, but two more of its members will hold high office within the next 30 years (see 1370).
The Marineds who will rule Morocco until 1470 capture the nation's capital from the Berber Almohads.
The energetic Turkish adventurer Ala-ud-din conducts an unauthorized raid early in the year on the rich city of Devagiri (later Daulatabad) on the Deccan plateau, loots the capital of the Yadavas, and murders his uncle, the senile Turkish ruler Firuz (Jalal-ud-din) who has ruled at Delhi since 1290 and founded the Khalji dynasty, extorting tribute from the local potentates he has subjugated. His sultanate has had no stable economic base, and its nobility was often heavily in debt to Delhi's money lenders. Ala-ud-Din has built up an efficient army, enriched himself with booty acquired 4 years ago by a raid on Bhilsa in central India, gained support from many dissatisfied Turkish noblemen, and buys further support with plunder acquired in a recent surprise attack on Maharashtra. He will reign until 1316, establishing a land tax on each individual peasant's holding, levying house and cattle taxes as well, and consolidating the empire with foot soldiers and cavalrymen paid in cash from revenues that poured directly into the sultan's treasury (see Gujarat, 1299).
England's clergy refuses a grant to the crown in accordance with Pope Boniface VIII's bull Clericis laicos asserting papal supremacy over temporal powers and denying the right of any king to tax the clergy. Edward I withdraws protection of the clergy by the royal courts, the public supports him, most of the clergy evades the papal bull by making "gifts" to the crown, recalcitrants have their lands confiscated, and the opposition forces the pope to modify his stand (but see 1302).
Former pope Celestine V dies in Fumone Castle, near Ferentino, May 19 at age 87.
Marco Polo, now 42, will dictate his Book of Various Experiences in the next 3 years to his fellow prisoner Rusticiano (or Rustichello) of Pisa. It will describe the Orient in which the Venetian traveler has spent one-third of his life.
Costard mongers in English streets sell costard apples at 12 pennies per hundred; they are among the earliest cultivated varieties.
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