Aeneid: Events in History at the Time the Poem Was Written

THE DECEPTIVE GREEKS The ploy of the Trojan horse is the likely source of the expression "Beware of Greeks bearing gifts." In the Aeneid a Trojan priest warns his comrades against taking the horse inside the walls of Troy, exclaiming:

by Virgil

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Events in History at the Time the Poem Was Written

Chaos and terror in Italy. Rome had formed a republic in 509 B.C. after driving out the Etruscan kings. Though it lasted until 44 B.C., the final fifty years of the republic were full of chaos. In 90 B.C. Roman subjects throughout Italy revolted, and the next two decades featured seven major slave rebellions. In addition, Rome experienced a civil war in 82 B.C. that caused significant bloodshed. Adding to the carnage of that conflict was the revenge that individuals such as the general Lucius Cornelius Sulla took on their opponents in the war. Sulla, the victor of the civil war, made a list of all his enemies and decreed that anyone whose name was on the list could be killed; those who murdered his foes would receive a reward. Following Sulla's dictatorship, Rome was subjected to still more internal struggles. Julius Caesar eventually emerged triumphant. Conquering his opponents, he was named dictator for life, though his reign lasted only until March 15, 44 B.C., when he was murdered by a group of senators. Virgil, a twenty-six-year-old student in Rome at the time, witnessed these events. Virgil subsequently retreated to his home in northern Italy, away from all of the turmoil in Rome.

Before his death, Julius Caesar had named his great-nephew Octavian (Octavius Caesar) as his successor. Many disputed Octavian's claim on the throne, however. More wars erupted as Octavian fought a number of foes, including the generals Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus, for control of Rome. In 42 B.C. the three factions reached a truce and divided the rule of Rome equally among themselves.

Octavian needed to pay the troops that had supported him during the war, so he commanded that lands be taken away from others and given to his soldiers. Virgil's farm in Mantua was confiscated by one of Octavian's legionnaires as a part of this effort. Legend has it that through the influence of powerful friends, Virgil was given back his farm, but this is probably not true. Despite any conflict over the property, Octavian ultimately became Virgil's supporter as a patron of the arts and the direct sponsor of the Aeneid.

In the meantime, the truce had broken down. Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian resumed their battle to gain the upper hand. The contest eventually came down to just Antony and Octavian. In 31 B.C., at the battle of Actium, a naval engagement took place that secured Octavian's place as the sole ruler of Rome. Virgil was a strong supporter of the new ruler, who was granted all the powers of an emperor. Virgil glorified Octavian's triumph by describing the battle of Actium in the Aeneid in a scene that displays this battle of the future on a shield made for Aeneas by Vulcan, the god of fire. In the poem, the purpose of the shield is to inspire Aeneas by giving him a glimpse of the future glory of Rome. In real life, it reflected Virgil's high regard for Octavian, which probably stemmed from the fact that the new ruler finally brought peace to Italy after his defeat of Antony.

The Golden Age. After Octavian assumed the position of emperor, he set out to consolidate all of Rome's territory. Rome entered a period of un-equaled prosperity and peace that Virgil describes as "an Age of Gold" (The Aeneid, bk. 6, line 1065), though he only lived to see the beginning of this era. Octavian gained the title pater patriae, "father of the country," and also became known as the "divine Augustus." After he died, the Senate enrolled him among the gods of the Roman state.

Octavian also worked to shape the morality of the Roman people. He attempted to bring back previously extinct religious rites from the Roman past such as the worship of ancient deities and the organization of secret brotherhoods. He hoped to set an example for the Romans of his day by referring back to the proud heritage of their ancestors. In the spirit of those reforms, Octavian was in favor of Virgil's work on the Aeneid since the poem recounted a glorious tale of Rome's founding.

In 19 B.C. Virgil, still trying to finish revising the Aeneid, was returning from Greece when he suddenly became ill and died. He had given specific instructions to his two closest friends to destroy the manuscript of the poem if anything should happen to him. Octavian forbade it, however, ordering that the work be published as it was. He already knew the caliber of the work since Virgil had read several sections of the poem to him and his wife.