Terms denoting separate positions vis à-vis the existence or nonexistence of God; since neither is theistic, these outlooks are often confused or misunderstood. The atheist flatly denies that there is a God; the agnostic, while not denying the possibility that God may exist, claims that man has no way of knowing if there is such a Divine power, God's existence or nonexistence being outside the boundaries of rational inquiry.
While there are some Jews today who describe themselves as agnostics, the concept of agnosticism nowhere appears in Jewish religious literature. Gershom Scholem, a renowned authority on
Atheism is a concept for which there is no equivalent in the Hebrew language, since ancient Israel was part of a world where no one doubted the existence of supernatural forces. The verses in Psalms (14:1, 53:2) popularly translated as "the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God" should not be taken literally as a profession of atheism. "The benighted man [or "knave"] thinks God does not care" is a more accurate translation (cf. Ps. 10:4). It implies contempt for the supreme Judge who watches over human affairs, distinguishing between the benighted and the righteous. For the biblical prophets, whose teaching is focused entirely on God, the issue was not belief or disbelief in God's existence, but whether a man should believe in One God or in many.
Rabbinic sources likewise provide no evidence of atheism among the Jews. The rabbis attacked the kofer ba-ikkar, "one who denies the root principle" (San. 39a-b; Tosef. Shev. 3:6), just as they condemned the man who proclaims Lét din ve-lét dayyan, "There is neither judgment nor Judge" (Gen. R. 26:14; Lev. R. 28:1). This means a denial of God's justice, not of His existence. Even the famous heretic, Elisha Ben Avuyah, was not accused of atheism but of denying that there is a personal God who "cares" and who dispenses reward or punishment in accordance with human merit.
The confrontation with atheism, as understood today, began in the Middle Ages, when Maimonides and other Jewish philosophers---like their Christian and Muslim counterparts---formulated various "proofs" of God's existence. Even so, their concept of the atheist was still overshadowed by the Min or "heretic" who denies God's unity or creative power rather than the likelihood that He exists. Only since the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment have thinkers been called upon to grapple with atheistic contentions in the modern sense and on a more rational basis. Theism is buffeted by numerous schools of thought, the principal challenge stemming from a materialistic view of the universe fostered by scientific investigation. Atheists have proved adept at disputing traditional theistic proofs that there is a God who maintains the harmony of the universe and who determines the fate of mankind.
Jewish theologians of the 20th century also addressed themselves to the questions raised by atheism, many citing Albert Einstein who (while unable to believe in a personal God) affirmed that "the cosmic religious experience is the strongest and noblest driving force behind scientific research" (an echo of the statement of Baruch Spinoza that he could believe in God only as "the sum total of the laws of nature"). Since World War II, Jewish thinkers have also had to contend with the problem of religious doubt and loss of faith resulting from the Nazi Holocaust.
Many Jews in the modern world, although they would define themselves as atheistic or agnostic (and despite being estranged from their ancestral faith and practices), have nevertheless remained Jews since Jewish identity is not only a matter of religious belief but one that involves other commitments as well, including the Jewish people, a cultural tradition, and a Jewish homeland. See also Secularism; Humanistic Judaism.
