Amanita abrupta
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Amanita abrupta
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Amanita abrupta, commonly known as the abrupt-bulbed Lepidella, is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family of mushrooms. Named for the characteristic shape of its fruit bodies, this white Amanita has a slender stem, a cap covered with conical white warts, and an "abruptly enlarged" swollen base. This terrestrial species grows in mixed woods in eastern North America and eastern Asia, where it is thought to exist in a mycorrhizal relationship with a variety of both coniferous and deciduous tree species.
The fruit bodies of Amanita abrupta are poisonous, and ingestion damages the liver; the toxicity is thought to be largely due to a rare amino acid. Although not considered as toxic as its infamous relatives the death cap and the destroying angel, A. abrupta is blamed for the deaths of two Japanese women in 1978. Poisoning symptoms included the abrupt appearance of violent vomiting, diarrhea and dehydration after a delay of 10–20 hours.
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Taxonomy
Amanita abrupta was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1897, based on a specimen he found in Auburn, Alabama. Because the remains of the volva are not present on the bulb in dried, mature, specimens, Peck thought that the species should be grouped with Amanita rubescens and A. spissa.[2] A. abrupta is the type species of the section Lepidella of the genus Amanita, in the subgenus Lepidella, a grouping of related Amanita mushrooms characterized by their amyloid spores.[3] Other North American species in this subgenus include A. atkinsoniana, A. chlorinosma, A. cokeri, A. daucipes, A. mutabilis, A. onusta, A. pelioma, A. polypyramis, A. ravenelii, and A. rhopalopus.[4] European and Asian species (also in section Lepidella) that are phylogenetically related—close to it in the evolutionary family tree—include A. solitaria, A. virgineoides, and A. japonica.[5]
The specific epithet abrupta refers to the shape of the swollen base, which is abruptly enlarged rather than gradually tapering.[6] The species' common name is the "abrupt-bulbed Lepidella".[7]
Description
In Amanita abrupta, as with most mushrooms, the bulk of the organism lies unseen beneath the ground as an aggregation of fungal cells called hyphae; under appropriate environmental conditions, the visible reproductive structure (fruit body) is formed. The cap has a diameter of 4 to 10 centimeters (1.6 to 3.9 in), and has a broadly convex shape when young, but eventually flattens.[7] The central portion of the cap becomes depressed in mature specimens.[7] The cap surface is verrucose—covered with small angular or pyramidal erect warts (1–2 mm tall by 1–2 mm wide at the base);[7] the warts are smaller and more numerous near the margin of the cap,[8] and small fragments of tissue may be hanging from the margin of the cap.[9] The cap surface, the warts, and the flesh are white. The warts can be easily separated from the cap, and in mature specimens they have often completely or partly disappeared.[2] The white gills are placed moderately close together, reaching the stem but not directly attached to it.
The stem is 6.5 to 12.5 cm (2.6 to 4.9 in) tall, and slender, with a diameter of 0.5 to 1.5 cm (0.2 to 0.6 in).[6] It is white, smooth (glabrous), solid (that is, not hollow internally), and has an abruptly bulbous base with the shape of a flattened sphere; it may develop longitudinal splits on the sides. The base is often attached to a copious white mycelium—a visual reminder that the bulk of the organism lies unseen below the surface. The ring is membranous, and persistent—not weathering away with time;[2] the ring may be attached to the stem with white fibers.[8] The mushroom has no distinct odor.[10]
Microscopic characteristics
When collected in deposit, such as with a spore print, the spores appear white. Viewed with a microscope, the spores are broadly elliptical or roughly spherical, smooth, thin-walled, and have dimensions of 6.5–9.5 by 5.5 by 8.5 µm. Spores are amyloid (meaning they take up iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent)[11] The bases of the basidia (the spore-bearing cells on the edges of gills) have clamp connections—short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division.[7]
Similar species
The fruit bodies of Amanita kotohiraensis, a species known only from Japan, bears a superficial resemblance to A. abrupta, but A. kotohiraensis differs in having scattered floccose patches (tufts of soft woolly hairs that are the remains of the volva) on the cap surface, and pale yellow gills.[12] A. polypyramis fruit bodies have also been noted to be similar to A. abrupta;[10] however, it tends to have larger caps, up to 21 cm (8.3 in) in diameter, a fragile ring that soons withers away, and somewhat larger spores that typically measure 9–14 by 5–10 µm.[13] The amyloidity and size of the spores are reliable characteristics to help distinguish A. abrupta specimens with less prominently bulbous bases from other lookalike species.[8]
Mycologists Tsuguo Hongo and Rokuya Imazeki suggested in the 1980s that the Japanese mushroom A. sphaerobulbosa was synonymous with the North American A. abrupta.[14][15] However, a 1999 study of Amanita specimens in Japanese herbaria concluded that they were closely related but distinct species, due to differences in spore shape and in the microstructure of the volval remnants.[16] Another similar species, A. magniverrucata, is differentiated from A. abrupta by a number of characteristics: the universal veil is clearly separated from the flesh of the cap; the volval warts disappear more quickly because the surface of the cap cuticle gelatinizes; the partial veil is more persistent; the spores are smaller and roughly spherical; on the underside of the partial veil, the stem has surface fibrils that are drawn upward so as to somewhat resemble a cortina (a cobweb-like protective covering over the immature spore bearing surfaces); A. magniverrucata has a distribution limited to the eastern US.[17]
Habitat, distribution, and ecology
The fruit bodies of A. abrupta grow on the ground, typically solitary, in mixed conifer and deciduous forests,[6] usually during autumn.[18] The frequency with which fruit bodies appear depends on several factors, such as season, location, temperature, and rainfall. The mushroom has been described as common in the Southeastern United States;[19] in Texas, it has been called both infrequent,[6] and common in the Big Thicket National Preserve.[20] Like most other Amanita species, A. abrupta is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees. This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees, enabling the fungus to receive moisture, protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree, and affording the tree greater access to soil nutrients.[21] Amanita abrupta is widely distributed throughout eastern North America,[6] where it has been found as far North as Quebec, Canada,[22] and as far south as Mexico.[23] It has also been collected in Korea,[24] and Japan.[5] One author claims to have found it in the Dominican Republic where it appeared to be growing in mycorrizhal association with pine trees.[10] Kuo also mentions a mycorrhizal relationship with both hardwoods and conifers,[8] while Tulloss lists additional preferred tree hosts such as beech, birch, fir, tsuga, oak, and poplar.[7] However, A. abrupta has been shown experimentally to not form mycorrhiza with Pinus virginiana.[25]
Toxicity
Ingestion of Amanita abrupta fruit bodies is toxic to the liver.[26] Laboratory experiments have shown that mice that ingested A. abrupta mushroom extracts developed cholera-like symptoms. A minimum single lethal dose of mushroom extract (equivalent to 4.5 grams of fruiting body per kilogram of mouse body weight) caused mice to become prostrate 6 hours after injection; shortly after the mice had diarrhea, then ultimately died between 24 and 48 hours after administration of the extract.[27] In Nagano, Japan in 1978, two women died from mushroom poisoning suspected to be caused by this species.[28] The symptoms were characterized by the abrupt appearance of violent vomiting, diarrhea and dehydration after a delay of 10–20 hours. Although not as toxic as the destroying angel (A. virosa) or the death cap (A. phalloides), A. abrupta causes changes in liver function similar to these species. Effects include a decrease in blood sugar levels, depletion of stored carbohydrate reserves (liver glycogen), and an increase in transaminases—enzymes that break down muscle protein.[29]
Bioactive compounds
Several novel non-protein amino acids have been isolated from Amanita abrupta, including (2S,4Z)-2-amino-5-chloro-6-hydroxy-4-hexenoic acid; D,L-2-amino-4-pentynoic acid (0.257% w/w); and L-2-amino-4,5-hexadienoic acid (0.911% w/w). This last chemical is suspected to be largely responsible for the toxic effects of the mushroom; the latter two compounds have also been found in A. solitaria and A. pseudoporphyria.[28] The chemical 2-amino-4-pentynoic acid (also known as propargylglycine) inhibits enzymes involved in the metabolism of the amino acids methionine and cystathionine in the liver;[30] it was also shown to have mild inhibitory effects on the glycogenolysis metabolic pathway in rat liver cells.[31]
See also
Footnotes
- ^ Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M. (1996). "Phylum Basidiomycota Order Agaricales". Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 531–34. ISBN 0-471-52229-5.
- ^ a b c Peck CH. (1897). "New species of fungi". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 24 (3): 137–47. doi:10.2307/2477879. JSTOR 2477879.
- ^ Tulloss RE. "Sections of Amanita". Studies in the Amanitaceae. http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Sections+of+Amanita. Retrieved 2011-02-11.
- ^ Bhatt RP, Miller OK Jr. (2004). "Amanita subgenus Lepidella and related taxa in the southeastern United States". In Cripps CL. Fungi in Forest Ecosystems: Systematics, Diversity, and Ecology. New York Botanical Garden Press. pp. 33–59. ISBN 978-0-89327-459-7.
- ^ a b Zhang L, Yang J, Zhuliang Y. (2004). "Molecular phylogeny of eastern Asian species of Amanita (Agaricales, Basidiomycota): taxonomic and biogeographic implications". Fungal Diversity 17: 219–38. http://eticomm.net/~ret/amanita/pdfs/Zhang%20Amanita%20phylogeny.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
- ^ a b c d e Metzler, Susan; Metzler, Van (1992-01). Metzler and Metzler, p. 64.. ISBN 978-0-292-75125-5. http://books.google.com/?id=HRtfvVigMmsC&lpg=PA331&dq=Amanita%20abrupta&pg=PA64#v=onepage&q=Amanita%20abrupta. Retrieved 2009-09-24.
- ^ a b c d e f Tulloss RE. "Amanita abrupta". Studies in the Amanitaceae. http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita+abrupta. Retrieved 2011-02-11.
- ^ a b c d Kuo M. "Amanita abrupta". MushroomExpert.Com. http://www.mushroomexpert.com/amanita_abrupta.html. Retrieved 2009-08-18.
- ^ Phillips R. "Amanita abrupta at Rogers Mushrooms". Rogers Plants Ltd. http://www.rogersmushrooms.com/gallery/DisplayBlock~bid~5519.asp. Retrieved 2009-08-18.
- ^ a b c Miller HR, Miller OK. (2006). North American Mushrooms: a Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Conn: Falcon Guide. p. 43. ISBN 0-7627-3109-5. http://books.google.com/?id=zjvXkLpqsEgC&pg=PA43&dq=Amanita+abrupta&q=Amanita%20abrupta. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
- ^ Metzler, Susan; Metzler, Van (1992-01). Metzler and Metzler, p. 331.. ISBN 978-0-292-75125-5. http://books.google.com/?id=HRtfvVigMmsC&pg=PA331&dq=Amanita+abrupta#v=onepage&q=Amanita%20abrupta. Retrieved 2009-09-24.
- ^ Nagasawa E, Mitani S. (2000). "A new species of Amanita section Lepidella from Japan". Memoirs of the National Science Museum (Tokyo) 32: 93–97.
- ^ Kuo M. "Amanita polypyramis (MushroomExpert.Com)". http://www.mushroomexpert.com/amanita_polypyramis.html. Retrieved 2009-08-19.
- ^ Hongo T. (1982). "The Amanitas of Japan" (in Japanese). Acta Phytotaxonomica et Geobotanica 33: 116–26.
- ^ Imazeki R, Hongo T. (1987). Colored Illustrations of Mushrooms of Japan. Vol 1. Osaka: Hoikusha Publishing Co., Ltd.
- ^ Yang Z-L, Doi Y. (1999). "A contribution to the knowledge of Amanita (Amanitaceae, Agaricales) in Japan". Bulletin of the National Science Museum of Tokyo Series B 25 (3): 107–30.
- ^ Tulloss R. (2009). "Amanita magniverrucata—revision of an interesting species of Amanita section Lepidella". Mycotaxon 108: 93–104. doi:10.5248/108.93.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 77.
- ^ Bessette AE, Roody WC, Bessette AR. (2007). Mushrooms of the Southeastern United States. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-8156-3112-5. http://books.google.com/?id=IB1Gv3jZMmAC&lpg=PA104&dq=amanita%20abrupta&pg=PA104#v=onepage&q=amanita%20abrupta. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
- ^ Lewis DP, McGraw JL Jr. (1981). "Agaricales, Family Amanitaceae, of the Big Thicket". The Southwestern Naturalist 26 (1): 1–4. doi:10.2307/3671322. JSTOR 3671322.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 5.
- ^ "Liste des Macromycètes – Outaouais Québec 1984—2006" (PDF). Les mycologues amateurs de l'Outaouais. http://www.mao-qc.ca/myco/images/Macromycetes%201984-2006.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-18.
- ^ Ortigoza CJA. (2001) (in Spanish). Guía micológica del género amanita del Parque Estatal Sierra de Nanchititla. Volume 4 of Cuadernos de investigación. UAEMEX. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-968-835-546-6. http://books.google.com/?id=2wIXsJRJCbAC&lpg=PA22&dq=amanita%20abrupta%20mexico&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q=. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
- ^ Kim Y-S, Seok S-J, Park Y-H, Cha D-Y, Min K-H, Yoo K-H. (1994). "Fungal flora of Mt. Chiak (I): Agaric fungi". Korean Journal of Mycology 22 (4): 410–20.
- ^ Vozzo JA, Hackskaylo E. (1961). "Mycorrhizal fungi on Pinus virginiana". Mycologia 53 (5): 538–39. doi:10.2307/3756310. JSTOR 3756310.
- ^ Kawaji A, Sone T, Natsuki R, Isobe M, Takabatake E, Yamaura Y. (1990). "In vitro toxicity test of poisonous mushroom extracts with isolated rat hepatocytes". The Journal of Toxicological Sciences 15 (3): 145–56. doi:10.2131/jts.15.145. PMID 2243367.
- ^ Yamaura Y, Maezawa H, Takabatake E, Hashimoto T. (1982). "Biochemical effects of poisonous mushroom suspected of causing cholera-like symptoms in mice". Journal of the Food Hygienic Society of Japan 23: 314.
- ^ a b Yamaura Y, Fukuhara M, Takabatake E, Ito N, Hashimoto T. (1985). "Hepatotoxic action of a poisonous mushroom, Amanita abrupta in mice and its toxic component". Toxicology 38 (2): 161–73. doi:10.1016/0300-483X(86)90117-4. PMID 3945968.
- ^ Tu AT. (1992). Handbook of Natural Toxins: Food Poisoning. New York: Dekker. p. 217. ISBN 0-8247-8652-1. http://books.google.com/?id=TmHmKGKr9rUC&pg=PA217&dq=Amanita+abrupta#v=onepage&q=Amanita%20abrupta. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
- ^ Awata S, Nakayama K, Kodama H. (1984). "Effects of D,L-propargylglycine on cystathionine metabolism in rats". Biochemistry International 8 (1): 171–79. PMID 6477595.
- ^ Kawaji A, Yamauchi K, Fujii S, Natsuki R, Takabatake E, Yamaura Y. (1992). "Effects of mushroom toxins on glycogenolysis – comparison of toxicity of phalloidin, α-amanitin and DL-propargylglycine in isolated rat hepatocytes". Journal of Pharmacobio-Dynamics 15 (3): 107–12. doi:10.1248/bpb1978.15.107. PMID 1320679.
Cited books
- Jenkins DB. (1986). Amanita of North America. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. ISBN 0-916422-55-0.
- Metzler V, Metzler S. (1992). Texas Mushrooms: a Field Guide. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-75125-7.
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