Given below in alphabetical order are the animals mentioned in the Bible. It is to be noted that translators differ as to the precise identification of some of them.
ANT A small insect noted in the Bible for its industrious traits.
ANTELOPE There is uncertainty as to the exact identification of the animal mentioned in Deuteronomy 14:5 which is translated "antelope" in certain versions. It could have been an antelope or deer. According to Isaiah 51:20 it is caught in a net.
The antelope has a slit hoof, is a cud-chewing animal and was consequently listed among the animals permitted to the Israelites as food (Deut 14:5).
APE See MONKEY below
ASP A name referring to several venomous snakes, especially the COBRA. It is used figuratively in the OT when speaking of violent men (Ps 140:1-3) and of the tongue of the unrighteous (Rom 3:13).
ASS See DONKEY below
BADGER The Hebrew word translated as badger in the KJV, is always mentioned in connection with its fur or pelt, which was used to cover the tabernacle in the Temple (Ex 25:5 etc.). However, since the skin of the badger is not suitable for that purpose, the word should be translated differently, but scholars are still not in agreement as to its identity. Some favor the dolphin. See also ROCK BADGER.
BAT A small flying mammal listed among the unclean birds unfit to be eaten (Lev 11:19; Deut 14:18). It is also mentioned once by Isaiah as a creature inhabiting dark caves (Is 2:20).
BEAR A large, four-footed mammal, covered with a thick coat of fur; the Syrian brown bear was indigenous to biblical Israel until the early 20th century. Although a known carnivore (I Sam 17:34), the bear subsists mostly on fruits, vegetables and insects. It is generally harmless to humans, but is known to become dangerous when it or its young are threatened or provoked (II Sam 17:8; Prov 17:12; Hos 13:8). Two female bears attacked the youths who mocked Elisha, mauling 42 of them (II Kgs 2:24). The bear also served as a symbol for Media in Daniel 7:5. Job twice refers to the stellar constellation known as "the Bear" (Job 9:9; 38:32).
BEE The bee is mentioned four times in the Bible, only once (Judg 14:8) in connection with the honey it produces. Other mentions of honey ("milk and honey") refer to that extracted from dates. Elsewhere, the enemies of Israel are likened to bees.
BITTERN A small bird, related to the heron, which lives in marshes. It is mentioned in Zephaniah in the description of the creatures which will inhabit desolate places. The identification of the Hebrew word for this bird is still problematic.
BOAR A wild pig, mentioned only once in the Bible: "the boar out of the woods" (Ps 80:13), which uproots a "vine out of Egypt" (Ps 80:8), alluding to Israel.
The same Hebrew word is also translated as "swine" in the lists of unclean animals in Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:8.
BULL Male cattle, used in the biblical world as a work animal (Deut 22:10; 25:4), but of primary importance to the Israelites for sacrificial purposes. As the largest sacrificial animal, the bull was offered for the most serious offenses: a sin of the high priest who brought guilt upon the entire nation (Lev 4:3), a sin committed by the people as a whole (Lev 4:13-14), as a priestly sin offering on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:6). Bulls are also mentioned in the Bible as images of power and might (Deut 33:17; Is 34:7; Jer 50:27). The image of the bull is also used figuratively to describe the strength of Joseph (Deut 33:17) and the enemies of Israel (Ps 68:30; Is 34:7; Jer 50:27). There were 12 bronze bulls (oxen) supporting the bronze sea in the Temple of Jerusalem (Jer 52:20; cf I Kgs 7:25). A zebu bull bronze figurine was uncovered during excavations at a high place dated c. 1200 B. C. at Daharat et-Tawila in northern Samaria.
BUZZARD A bird of prey listed among the unclean birds unfit to be eaten. There is considerable doubt as to the bird's exact identification.
CALF See cow below
CAMEL The camel was part of daily life in biblical times and is frequently mentioned throughout the Scriptures. The single-humped Arabian camel was the standard mode of transportation in the ancient Near East. Even though the date of domestication of the camel (c. 12th century B. C.) is later than the patriarchal period, the earliest references list the patriarchs as owners of camels: Abraham sent his servant to Mesopotamia on camel-back, in search of a wife for Isaac (Gen 24:10); and Jacob presented his brother Esau with a gift of 30 milk camels and their young (Gen 32:15). These passages, however, (along with Gen 12:16; 30:43; 31:17), are considered by scholars to be anachronistic.
Camels were of vital importance to trade and commerce (Gen 37:25; I Kgs 10:2; Is 30:6). Long journeys would have been impossible without these sturdy animals, which are capable of several days of desert travel without stopping for water. They were also used by neighboring nations and warring tribes (Jug 6:3-5; I Sam 27:9; 30:17; I Chr 5:19-22). There were so many camels in the kingdom of David that a special overseer, Obil the Ishmaelite, was appointed (I Chr 27:30). On their way from Babylon the exiles used 435 camels and 6,720 donkeys (Neh 7:69). Isaiah foresees camels bringing the gifts of Midian and Ephah to Zion (Is 60:6) and the exiles returning to Jerusalem on camels (Is 66:20).
Jesus twice referred to camels in hyperbole: he told his disciples "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God" (Matt 19:24; Mark 10:25; Luke 18:25), and criticized the Pharisees and scribes, "who strain out a gnat and swallow a camel" (Matt 23:24). Elsewhere in the NT, it is mentioned that John the Baptist wore camel-hair garments (Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6).
Camels chew their cud, but do not possess split hooves; they are therefore considered unclean and unfit to eat (Lev 11:4; Deut 14:7).
CATERPILLAR An insect; the larval stage of a butterfly or moth which feeds upon leafy vegetation. The biblical references refer to its destructive effects.
CHAMELEON One of the eight creeping reptiles which are an abomination and may not be eaten (Lev 11:29-30); moreover "whoever touches them when they are dead shall be unclean until evening" (Lev 11:31). It occurs only once, in Leviticus 11:30 and not all scholars agree on its translation as chameleon, though it is a member of the lizard family.
COBRA A highly poisonous snake; the cobra mentioned in the Bible is thought to be the Egyptian cobra, rare in present-day Israel. According to Psalms 58:4-5, the wicked "are like the deaf cobra that stops its ear, which will not heed the voice of charmers, charming ever so skillfully". In the future, those who trust in the Lord "shall tread upon the lion and the cobra" (Ps 91:13), and "the nursing child shall play by the cobra's hole" (Is 11:8). See also SERPENT.
COLT The young of a horse, donkey or camel. Most references relate to the donkey's colt; Genesis 32:15 gives colt as the young of the camel. Drawing upon Zechariah 9:9, Jesus directed his disciples to bring him a colt, upon which he rode into Jerusalem (Matt 21:1-10; Mark 11:1-11; cf Luke 19:29-37; John 12:14-15). Both Matthew and John specify a donkey colt; Mark and Luke do not qualify it. See also DONKEY.
COW, CALF, HEIFER The cow and its young calf were of great value in biblical Israel as sources of dairy products (I Sam 6:7, 10) meat (Gen 18:7-8; Luke 15:23), and as work animals. Their sacrificial importance is illustrated through the purification offering of the red heifer (Num chap. 19) and the sin offering of the calf (Lev 9:3-8). Calves played an important role in cultic worship throughout the Near East, which influenced Israelite worship. When Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the Law the Israelites persuaded Aaron to build a GOLDEN CALF (Ex chap. 32). King Jeroboam of Israel erected temples in Bethel and Dan, and placed a golden calf in each one (I Kgs 12:28-30; cf II Kgs 10:29). In Ezekiel's vision of the throne of God, the attending creatures possessed soles like calves' feet (Ezek 1:7). John's vision of the throne of God also featured a calf (Rev 4:6-7).
Figurative references to cows include pharaoh's dream of seven fat cows devoured by seven thin ones (Gen chap. 41), the allusion to Israel as a "stubborn calf" (Hos 4:16) and the pampered elite women of Samaria who are called "cows of Bashan" after the name of plush fertile lands of Bashan famous for its plump cows (Amos 4:1).
CRANE A large, long-legged bird; it originates in the north of Europe and migrates to the south during the winter. The crane is mentioned in Isaiah 38:14 although there is controversy as to which bird was in fact meant. The Hebrew word was long translated as "swallow".
CRICKET An insect, listed along with the locust and grasshopper as permissible food, according to the dietary laws in Leviticus chapter 11.
DEER, DOE, FAWN, ROE, ROEBUCK Three species of the ruminant deer family – the red deer, the fallow deer and the roe deer – thrived in the Middle East in biblical times. It is thought that the OT writers were not precise in their naming of this animal and its relatives, and translations from the Hebrew reflect this imprecision. The fawn, a young deer, is mentioned in the Song of Solomon, where the author, describing his beloved, writes "Your two breasts are like two fawns" (Song 4:5; 7:3).
DOE See DEER above.
DOG A domestic member of the canine family. In ancient times, the dog was not kept as a pet and is depicted unfavorably by biblical authors as a scavenger and generally unattractive beast, which ate animal and human flesh (Ex 22:31; I Kgs 14:11; 16:4). A fool's repeated folly is likened to a dog that "returns to his own vomit" (Prov 26:11; cf II Pet 2:22). The prophets predicted that members of the houses of Kings Jeroboam, Baasha and Ahab would be eaten by packs of dogs (I Kgs 14:11; 16:4; 21:24) and indeed, dogs licked up the blood of Ahab and ate the flesh of his widow, Jezebel (I Kgs 22:38; II Kgs 9:35-36).
Contemptuous statements, indicating the lowly status of the dog were uttered by Goliath (I Sam 17:43) and by Mephibosheth the son of Jonathan (II Sam 9:8) to David. Abishai son of Zeruiah, referring to Shimei, son of Gera, said to King David "Why should this dead dog curse my lord the King?" (II Sam 16:9), When Elisha wept over the evil he foresaw for Israel by the hand of Hazael, the latter asked "But what is your servant – a dog that he should do this gross thing?" (II Kgs 8:13). Here, "dog" is used figuratively for excessive humility. In Deuteronomy 23:18, it refers to a male prostitute. Paul also uses it as a term of insult (Phil 3:2), while the Book of Revelation classes dogs with sorcerers, murderers etc. who are excluded from the heavenly Jerusalem (Rev 22:15).
An unsual discovery of a dog cemetery from the Persian period was made during excavations at Ashkelon.
DONKEY, FOAL (ASS) An equine animal. The donkey was of prime importance in the ancient Near East as a work and transport animal. The numerous references to the beast indicate that it was common in the biblical world; there were specific laws governing its treatment (Ex 23:5; Deut 5:14; 22:10), and compensation to its owner upon its injury (Ex 21:33-34). Donkeys were ridden by all members of society (Ex 4:20; Judg 5:10; I Sam 25:42). Zechariah 9:9 states that the coming king of Zion would be mounted on a donkey. Jesus, drawing upon this verse, rode into Jerusalem on donkeyback (Matt 21:2-10; John 12:14-16).
One of the best known references to donkeys is the story of Balaam, who was sent by Balak king of the Moabites to curse the Israelites. Balaam's donkey turned aside when it saw God's angel, arousing Balaam's anger, but it talked when "the Lord opened the mouth of the donkey" (Num 22:22ff). The animal's popularity and value are highlighted by instances where the number of donkeys was recorded: the Israelites took 61,000 donkeys from the Midianites as plunder (Num 31:34); and the exiles of Judah returned from Babylon with 6,720 donkeys (Ezra 2:67; Neh 7:69).
DOVE See TURTLEDOVE below
DROMEDARY A swift riding camel of the one-humped Arabian species. While the dromedary is probably included in other biblical references to camels, it is specifically mentioned in Isaiah and Jeremiah. See also CAMEL.
EAGLE A large bird of prey (given as "osprey" in some versions), of which there are several varieties in the Near East. It is included among the unclean animals forbidden to be eaten (Lev 11:13; Deut 14:12). As the largest bird in the area, and as a creature possessing great speed and strength, the eagle is often alluded to in the Bible. God's deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt, and his protection through the wilderness is likened to a journey "on eagles' wings" (Ex 19:4) and to the bird's protection of its young (Deut 32:11). Impressed with the eagle's speed in flight, the prophets forewarned the people of the attacks of the enemy who shall fly "like an eagle" (Jer 48:40; 49:22; Hos 8:1); foreign rulers were also described as eagles (Ezek 17:3, 7; cf Dan 7:4). Other allusions to the eagle's swiftness are found in Deuteronomy 28:49, II Samuel 1:23 and Jeremiah 4:13. Ancient Near Eastern art and culture incorporated the eagle in images of deities and this influence is noted in prophetic visions of the throne of God and his attending creatures (Ezek 1:10; 10:14; Rev 4:7).
FALCON A medium-size bird of prey, considered unclean and therefore forbidden to the Israelites as a source of food (Lev 11:14; Deut 14:13). Job 28:7 makes note of the falcon's sharp vision.
FAWN See DEER above.
FLEA A wingless parasitic insect. David, escaping from Saul, described himself as a flea, in an attempt to dissuade the king from wasting efforts on chasing such an insignificant person (I Sam 24:14; 26:20).
FLY Two Hebrew words are translated as "flies" – the first, arov ("swarms of flies" in Ex 8:21-31; Ps 78:45; 105:31), were stinging flies that descended upon Egypt as the fourth plague; the second zevuv, is thought to be the common housefly. Ecclesiastes 10:1 states that a dead fly in an ointment will spoil it like "a little folly to one respected for wisdom and honor", and Isaiah compared an invading Egyptian army to attacking flies (Is 7:18).
Baal Zebub ("the god of the fly") was worshiped in the Israelite town of Ekron (II Kgs chap. 1).
FOAL See DONKEY above.
FOWL, CHICKS, HEN Any winged, feathered vertebrate; its modern definition is that of domestic poultry. Scholars are unsure as to when poultry was introduced into biblical Israel. The "fatted fowl" numbered among King Solomon's daily provisions (I Kgs 4:22-23), and the fowl prepared for Nehemiah (Neh 5:18) were probably some other type of bird or game. The quail provided by God to the Israelites after the Exodus (Num 11:31-32) are described in Psalms 78:27 as "feathered fowl like the sand of the seas". In the NT, Jesus laments over Jerusalem, wanting to protect the people "as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings" (Matt 23:37; cf Luke 13:34).
FOX A member of the dog family, with a long, bushy tail; known for its slyness and cunning (cf Luke 13:31-32), and its habit of prowling in ruins (Lam 5:18; Ezek 13:4 – the latter verse employs the image of foxes to describe false prophets). The fox lives in dens (Matt 8:20; Luke 9:58). Foxes and little foxes are used symbolically in Song of Solomon 2:15. The references to foxes in Judges and Nehemiah, may in fact denote the JACKAL.
FROG A tailless amphibian known for its agility in jumping and leaping. In the second plague visited upon Egypt, "Frogs came up and covered the land" (Ex 8:6). Frogs were among the creatures considered unclean to eat; this point is possibly reflected in Revelation 16:13, where "three unclean spirits like forgs" come forth.
GAZELLE A small antelope, renowned for its swiftness (II Sam 2:18; I Chr 12:8). The gazelle was one of the animals permitted to the Israelites as food (Deut 12:15, 22; 14:5; 15:22) and is listed among the provisions of King Solomon's palace (I Kgs 4:23). Both Asahel son of Zeruiah and brother of Joab, and David's mighty Gadite warriors were said to have been as swift as gazelles (II Sam 2:18; I Chr 12:8); the animal is also referred to figuratively in the Song of Solomon (4:5; 7:3).
GECKO A small, scaled lizard, listed among the "creeping things" that are forbidden to the Israelites as food.
GNAT A small two-winged insect; it is unknown exactly which variety is meant. Matthew 23:24 points to the scribes and Pharisees "who strain out a gnat and swallow a camel", i.e., they attach importance to minor issues while neglecting more serious religious practices and responsibilities.
GOAT, KID A horned, cud-chewing mammal, possessing a coat of long hair. As domesticated animals, goats and their young, kids, were gathered in herds (Gen 30:32; I Sam 25:2; I Chr 17:11). The goat met both secular and religious needs of the Israelites: as a dairy source (Deut 32:14; Prov 27:26-27), as permitted meat (Deut 14:4; Judg 6:19; Luke 15:29), as a source of fabric and leather (Ex 25:4; 26:7; I Sam 19:13, 16; Heb 11:37) and as a sacrificial offering of varying sorts (Lev 1:10; 3:12; 4:23).
In the religious realm, the goat stands out among all other sacrificial animals as the one that is sent out into the wilderness by the high priest on the Day of Atonement, as a scapegoat (see AZAZEL) for the sins of the nation (Lev. 16:21-22). The prohibition against mixing meat and milk, a cornerstone of the post-biblical Jewish DIETARY LAWS, has its origins in the command, "you shall not boil a young goat in its mother's milk" (Ex 23:19; 34:26; Deut 14:21).
The small army of Israelites that fought against Ben-Hadad's Syrian forces were "like two little flocks of goats'' (I Kgs 20:26-27). The goat was also used as an allusion for assorted foreign leaders and powers -– Edom (Is 34:6-7), Greece (Dan 8:5-8), as well as the people of Israel (Ezek 34:17; Zech 10:3).
In his parable of the future judgment, Jesus uses the metaphor of separating the sheep from the goats (Matt 25:31-46).
GRASSHOPPER A leaping insect, often referred to interchangeably with the locust. The Israelites were permitted to eat this insect (Lev 11:22). Grasshoppers were known as destroyers of crops (Ecc 12:5; cf I Kgs 8:37, II Chr 6:28; Nah 3:15), and were used figuratively to depict insignificance (Num 13:33, Is 40:22), cowardice (Nah 3:17) and countless multitudes of people (Jer 46:23).
HARE A small mammal related to the rabbit, and considered unclean and unfit for Israelite consumption.
HAWK A small bird of prey, unfit for Israelite consumption (Lev 11:16; Deut 14:15). Other biblical references possibly point to the bird's migratory habits (Job 39:26; Is 34:15).
HEIFER See cow above
HEN See FOWL above
HERON One of a family of water birds with long legs and neck. It is forbidden as food for the Israelites.
HOOPOE A cinnamon-colored bird, about the size of a pigeon. The hoopoe has a head plume and long, slender bill. It is listed among the birds unclean and not fit for Israelite consumption.
HORNET A flying stinging insect; related to the wasp. God promised to send swarms of hornets to descend upon the Hivites, the Canaanites and the Hittites, as harbingers of the conquering Israelite tribes (Ex 23:28; cf Josh 24:12).
HORSE A four-legged mammal. The horse was primarily used in the biblical period for warfare and transportation. Most tribes in the ancient Near East employed horsepower for war, and warhorses were often hitched to chariots (Ex 14:9; Judg 5:22; II Sam 1:6; I Kgs 20:1; Is 5:28; Acts 23:23). As a means of transportation, horses were ridden by the wealthy and by nobility. Joseph was honored in Egypt by riding in one of the pharaoh's chariots (Gen 41:43), while in Persia, Mordecai was similarly honored (Est 6:7-11). David's son Absalom outfitted himself with chariots and horses (II Sam 5:1) and Elijah was carried up to heaven in a fiery chariot, drawn by "horses of fire'' (II Kgs 2:11). King Solomon took an interest in accumulating and breeding horses (I Kgs 4:26); some of which he received as gifts from visiting foreigners (I Kgs 10:24-25; II Chr 9:28).
In the Song of Solomon, the beloved's beauty is compared with one of Pharaoh's horses ("filly'' Song 1:9) and the Book of Job (39:19-25) contains a classic description of the warhorse. Man sins without regard to the consequences, "as the horse rushes into the battle" (Jer 8:6). Lust and idolatry are likened to horses in a sexual frenzy (Jer 5:8; Ezek 23:20). Habakkuk 3:8 envisions God's majestic steeds and "chariots of salvation".
In the NT, judgments upon the earth are symbolized by different colored horses: white as conquest; red as bloodshed; black as famine and pale as death (Rev 6:2-8). Jesus rides on a white horse (Rev 19:11).
HYENA A carrion-eating mammal, falling between the cat and the dog families; it is known for its disturbing howl (Is 13:22). The Hebrew, tzeboa, was incorporated into names of locations: the Valley of Zeboim (I Sam 13:18) and the town of Zeboim (Neh 11:34). Other possible references to the hyena are found in Isaiah 13:22; 34:14 and Jeremiah 50:39 where they occupy desolate places.
JACKAL A member of the canine family, resembling a wolf, but smaller and with a shorter tail. Common in biblical Israel, the jackal travels in packs and feeds on carrion as well as freshly killed animals. As a nocturnal animal, frequently inhabiting abandoned and desolate areas, the jackal is often referred to as a symbol of desolation and ruin (Is 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 10:22), and mention is made of its cry (Is 13:22; Mic 1:8). Babylon (Is 13:22; Jer 51:37), Edom (Is 34:13), the mountain of Esau (Mal 1:3), Jerusalem (Jer 9:11) and Mount Zion (Lam 5:18) are all listed as being, or fated to be, resorts of jackals. In the future, the haunts of jackals will sprout vegetation (Is 35:7), they, along with other wild animals, shall rejoice over the bounty of water in the wilderness (Is 43:20).
JACKDAW One of the birds listed among those forbidden as food to the Israelites.
KID See GOAT above
KITE A bird of prey and a scavenger, included among the unclean birds in the dietary laws of Leviticus and Deuteronomy.
LAMB See SHEEP below
LEECH A blood-sucking, slug-like animal, mentioned only once in the Bible, in Proverbs 30:15: "The leech has two daughters, crying 'give, give!' ". The leech's daughter probably alludes to greed. Others, however, interpret this word as referring to the author of that section of proverbs.
LEOPARD A large member of the feline family; it was quite common in biblical Israel. Reference is made to its speed (Hab 1:8) and its predatory nature (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7). Mention is also made of its spots (Jer 13:23), its peaceful cohabitation with a kid in the future period of peace (Is 11:6) and its abode in the mountains of Lebanon and Hermon (Song 4:8).
A four-headed, winged leopard in Daniel 7:6 symbolizes Persia; the beast from the sea in Revelation 13:2 symbolizing the Roman Empire, resembled a leopard.
LICE Small insects that breed on mammals. The Lord sent lice as the third plague upon the Egyptians. According to his instructions, "Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod and struck the dust of the earth, and it became lice on man and beast'' (Ex 8:17). The plague is recalled in Psalm 105:31.
LION A large member of the feline family, mentioned numerous times in the Bible (there are seven Hebrew words for lion). The tribe of Judah was compared to a lion (Gen 49:9). Implicit in the variety of references is the strength and boldness of the lion (Prov 30:30). Its roar struck terror (Amos 3:8). Lions were encountered by shepherds and travelers (Judg 14:5-6; I Sam 17:34-35) and roamed the desert (Is 30:6). They were even set upon men as a death penalty (I Kgs 13:24-26; 20:36; Dan 6:16). The lion stands for courage (Num 23:24; I Chr 12:8; Prov 28:1) and wickedness (Ps 10:9; Prov 28:15; Ezek 22:25; I Pet 5:8) and represented divine justice and majesty (Ezek 1:10; 10:14; Rev 4:7). God himself is compared to a lion (Lam 3:10; Hos 5:14). Ornamental lions decorated Solomon's throne (I Kgs 10:19ff) and the Temple (I Kgs 7:27-29, 36; 10:19-20) and appeared in Ezekiel's vision (Ezek 41:18-19). In the messianic age the lion will lie down with the lamb (Is 11:6).
In the NT, Jesus called "the lion of the tribe of Judah'' (Rev 5:5).
LIZARD A small reptile of which numerous varieties are found in the Near East. It is listed among the unclean animals forbidden to the Israelites. Some have also seen a reference to a lizard in Proverbs 30:28.
LOCUST A leaping insect, related to the grasshopper. Locusts were sent upon Egypt as the eighth plague (Ex chap. 10). Swarms of locusts are capable of destroying entire crops, thus they were greatly feared in the biblical world (Deut 28:38, 42; II Chr 7:13). The image of destructive locust swarms was employed as a metaphor for attacking enemy armies (Judg 6:5; Jer 51:27; Joel 2:25; Nah 3:15), and as a harbinger of the Day of the Lord (Joel 2:1, 11). In order to remove the plague special ceremonies of fasting, praying and trumpet-blowing were proclaimed (Joel 2:12-17). The Israelites, according to Leviticus 11:22, were permitted to eat locusts, while in wilderness places, John the Baptist subsisted on locusts and wild honey (Matt 3:1, 4).
MAGGOT See WORM below
MOLE A small rodent that burrows in the ground. The biblical mole (Lev 11:29) is not identical to the true mole, which is not indigenous to the region. The latter eats insects, whereas the former, often referred to as a mole rat, feeds on plant roots and bulbs. The mole is one of the "creeping things'' (Lev 11:29) considered unclean and not to be eaten.
MONKEY, APE Primates, unspecified as to type; they were brought back from Tarshish every three years on King Solomon's merchant ships, along with gold, silver and ivory.
MOTH An insect resembling a butterfly; the references in the Bible usually refer to the moth's damaging effects on clothes (Job 13:28; Is 50:9; 51:8; James 5:2). The moth's "house'' in Job 27:18 is the cocoon created from cloth fibers by the insect in its caterpillar form. The reference to the delicate moth in Job 4:19 is a metaphor for the frailty of man before God.
MOUSE, RAT A small rodent, prohibited for Israelite consumption (Lev 11:29). It is also mentioned in Isaiah 66:17 where the prophet refers to a pagan cultic practice. A plague of mice visited the Philistines when they captured the ark of the covenant (I Sam 6:5), although the NKJV translates the Hebrew as "rats". When the Philistines returned the ark to the Israelites they include "five golden tumors and five golden rats" as a trespass offering (I Sam 6:3-4). The five golden rats represented the lords of the five Philistine cities, Ashdod, Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath and Ekron (I Sam 6:17-18).
MULE A hybrid offspring of a horse and an ass, the mule was probably introduced into biblical Israel by non-Israelites (cf Ezek 27:8, 14) as crossbreeding was prohibited, according to Leviticus 19:19. Mules were presented to Solomon as gifts from foreign visitors (I Kgs 10:24-25; II Chr 9:23-24), and 245 of them were brought to Israel with those returning from the Babylonian Exile (Ezra 2:66; Neh 7:68). Mules were ridden by the aristocracy (II Sam 13:29; 18:9; I Kgs 1:33, 38, 44) and were also used as burden-bearers (II Kgs 5:17; I Chr 12:40). Psalms 32:8-9 offers the guidance of God to man, so that he will "not be like the horse or the mule, which have no understanding which must be harnessed with bit and bridle".
ONAGER A wild donkey, now extinct, the syrian variety was the only onager found in Israel in biblical times.
OSTRICH A flightless bird. The female lays her eggs in shallow pits, often leaving the nest during the day when the sun can warm them. At night, the male incubates the eggs. Most of the biblical references group the ostrich with the jackal and other wild animals, (e.g. Job 30:29; Lam 4:3). Job 39:13-18 relates several interesting characteristics of this bird. "She leaves her eggs on the ground and warms them in the dust� she treats her young harshly, as though they were not hers". According to Job, the ostrich is also stupid. The ostrich is prohibited for Israelite consumption (Lev 11:16; Deut 14:15).
OWL A nocturnal, small to medium size bird of prey renowned for its sharp night vision. Several species of owl are found in Israel and a number of different Hebrew words are translated as owl. Owls are among the unclean birds listed in the dietary laws in Leviticus chapter 11 and Deuteronomy chapter 14. Isaiah states that owls will dwell in the ruins of Babylon (Is 13:21) and Edom (Is 34:11).
OX A large mammal, member of the bovine family. Oxen were domesticated (Gen 12:16) and used as work animals (I Kgs 19:19; Job 1:14; Amos 6:12). Animal control laws covered both human injury caused by an ox and injury to an ox as a form of property (Ex 21:28-22:13). Oxen were rested on the Sabbath (Ex 23:12; Deut 14:4). The ox was permitted to the Israelites as food (Deut 14:4); and was a sacrificial victim for offerings (Num 7:88; II Sam 24:22; I Kgs. 1:9; I Chr 21:23).
One of the faces of the four-faced creatures that attended God's throne in Ezekiel's vision was that of an ox (Ezek 1:10). The molten sea in the Temple was set upon 12 bronze oxen, three oxen facing each of the four directions (I Kgs 7:25; cf Jer 52:20), and oxen figures also decorated the panels of the ten bronze carts requisitioned by Solomon (I Kgs 7:29).
PARTRIDGE A small game bird. King Saul's continual pursuit of David was described by the latter as hunting "a partridge in the mountains" (I Sam 26:20), alluding to both the use of partridge as food and the bird's attempts to evade its hunters. "As a partridge that broods but does not hatch" (Jer 17:11) refers to the popular but mistaken belief that the partridge gathers the eggs of other birds.
PEACOCK The male of the peafowl bird, native to India. The peacock is offered as an alternative translation to three verses in the KJV edition of the Bible: for the reading "monkeys" in I Kings 10:22 and II Chronicles 9:21 and for "ostrich" in Job 39:13.
PELICAN a large, fish-eating bird, associated with ruin and desolation.
PIGEON A small game bird always listed with the turtledove in both the OT and NT. Most of the numerous references describe their ritual and sacrificial uses: as burnt and sin offerings (Lev 1:14; 5:7, 11); in ritual purification of a woman after childbirth (Lev 12:6, 8) and in similar rites for cured lepers (Lev 14:22, 30) and defiled Nazirites (Num 6:10). The pigeon and turtledove were often permitted as a sacrificial option for those too poor to afford sheep or lambs. Abraham included a young pigeon in his covenant with God in Genesis 15:9.
After the birth of Jesus, Mary made the customary purification sacrifice at the Temple (Luke 2:22-24). Pigeons were sold in Jerusalem for sacrificial purposes (cf Matt 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:14).
PORCUPINE A large member of the rodent family. Isaiah (34:11) refers to a porcupine in his image of the creature which will inhabit the desolate places of Edom. The translation is problematic.
QUAIL A small game bird, related to the partridge and the pheasant; quails served as supplementary food for the Israelites as they journeyed through the wilderness (Ex 16:13; Num 11:31-32). Quails are known to migrate in the spring from Africa to the Mediterranean area. After this exhausting flight they alight on the coast where they are easily caught.
RAM The adult male of the sheep. The ram was a source of meat (Ex 29:32) and was used as a sacrificial offering (Lev 1:10; 5:15; 6:6; 8:2, 18). The horns of the ram were used as a trumpet (Josh 6:4), and its skin was used with other materials as coverings for the tabernacle (Ex 26:14). At the last moment God provided Abraham with a ram in place of his son Isaac as a sacrifice (Gen 22:13). In judging between the good and evil of Israel, God will "judge between sheep and sheep, between rams and goats" (Ezek 34:17). In Daniel's vision of the rams, its horns were symbols of Media and Persia (Dan chap. 8). See SHEEP below.
RATSee MOUSE above.
RAVENA large black bird common in the Near East; it is mentioned in Genesis 8:7 as the first bird sent from the ark by Noah. The raven is included among the list of unclean birds in Leviticus 11:15 and Deuteronomy 14:14. Ravens delivered bread and meat to Elijah while he was in hiding (I Kgs 17:4, 6), and God's provision of food to young ravens (Job 38:41; Ps 147:9; Luke 12:24) serves as an example of his care for all of his creatures. Isaiah 34:11 lists the raven as one of the animals that would inhabit the ruins of Edom.
Rock BADGER, HYRAX A small rabbit-like animal which lives in crags or rocks, hence its name. It was considered unclean and therefore not fit for Israelite consumption.
ROE, ROEBUCK See DEER above.
ROOSTER (COCK) A male chicken, mentioned only in the NT. Jesus referred to "the crowing of the rooster" (Mark 13:35) as a specific time of day, that is, daybreak. The rooster's crowing is also an integral part of Jesus' prophecy: on the night before his death Jesus prophesies that Peter "even this night, before the rooster crows twice,� will deny me three times" (Mark 14:30; cf Matt 26:75; Luke 22:61; John 13:38). See FOWL above.
SCORPION A member of the arachnid family, the scorpion is nocturnal, and attacks its prey – insects and other arachnids – with an often painful, or even fatal, venom-releasing sting located at the end of its tail.
In Deuteronomy 8:15, the Lord is remembered for bringing the Children of Israel through the wilderness "in which were fiery serpents and scorpions". The desert habitat of the scorpion is reflected in the name given to the Ascent of Akrabbim, meaning scorpions, southwest of the Dead Sea (Num 34:4; Josh 15:3; Judg 1:36). King Rehoboam threatens Israel that he will place upon them a yoke much heavier than that of his father Solomon, it will be not only a whip, but a scorpion too (I Kgs 12:11, II Chr 10:11, 14). The prophet Ezekiel is encouraged by God not to fear the response of the people even though they are like briars, thorns and scorpions (Ezek 2:6).
In the NT, just as a father will not give his son a scorpion when he asks for an egg, but knows how to "give good gifts to your children", God the heavenly father will provide the holy spirit to those who ask (Luke 11:12-13). The scorpion's stinging tail and the torment it produces to man is recalled in Revelation 9:5, 10.
SEAGULL A bird that lives along seacoasts; it is one of the unclean birds listed in the dietary laws of Leviticus and Deuteronomy.
SERPENT, SNAKE A scaly reptile. Numerous varieties of serpents and snakes are found in the Near East; some pose little danger to man and animals, while others can inflict fatal injuries. Serpents plagued the Israelites as they journeyed to Canaan after the Exodus (Num 21:6), and their poisonous bites are recorded in other passages (Prov 23:32; Ecc 10:8, 11; Amos 5:19; cf Ps 58:4).
The serpent had great mythological and cultic significance in the ancient Near East; these influences are clearly seen in biblical accounts (cf Job 26:13; Is 27:1; Amos 9:3) Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden, after being tempted by the sly and crafty serpent to partake of the fruit of the divinely forbidden tree of knowledge (Gen chap. 3). This "serpent of old" is called both "devil" and "Satan" in Revelation 12:9; 20:2. Moses and Aaron demonstrated their power when Aaron's rod was cast to the ground, turned into a serpent and swallowed up the rods of Pharaoh's magicians who had done likewise with their rods (Ex 7:8-12). Numbers 21:6-9 relates that the Lord commanded Moses to make a copper (KJV: bronze) serpent for those bitten by snakes to look at for healing purposes. This serpent was later placed in the Temple and eventually destroyed by King Hezekiah as part of his reform measures (II Kgs 18:4).
The serpent is used figuratively to represent Assyrians (Is 14:29), Babylonians (Jer 8:17), the enemies of Israel (Deut 32:33), evil men in general (Ps 58:4), and Pharisees and Scribes (Matt 23:33). In Isaiah 27:1 the serpent is mentioned in a mythological-eschatological context, where "Leviathan the fleeing serpent" represents the enemies of the Lord who will be destroyed. Another reference to the serpent in the messianic age is in Isaiah 65:25, where it is stated that, along with the wolf and lamb feeding together, "dust shall be the serpent's food".
An indication of the mission of Jesus' disciples is that they have power over serpents (Luke 10:19). See NEHUSHTAN.
SHEEP, LAMB, EWE A four-legged mammal with fleece, domesticated and raised throughout the Near East. The adult male is the ram, the adult female is the ewe and the young sheep, both male and female, is the lamb. Sheep were tended in flocks by shepherds (Gen 29:9); the wealth of an individual could be measured by the size of his flocks (I Sam 25:2). Both dairy and meat products were available from sheep (II Sam 17:29; Ps 44:11; Is 7:21-22) as well as wool (Lev 13:47; job 31:20), rough clothing (Heb 11:37) and covering for tents (Ex 26:14). Sheep were the principal sacrificial animal offered upon the altar for a range of sacrifices (Lev 1:10; 5:6, 15); a year-old male lamb or goat served as the Passover sacrifice in Egypt (Ex 12:1-5). The most common biblical metaphor involving sheep is that of the defenseless flock and the caring, guarding shepherd (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19; Mic 5:8; Matt 10:16; John 10:3-4). Among the many OT images of Israel as the flock and of God and his assigned leaders as its shepherds, are Psalms, 23:1; "The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want", Isaiah 40:11: "He will feed his flock like a shepherd; he will gather the lambs with his arm"; Jeremiah 23:3-4: "I will gather the remnant of my flock out of the countries where I have driven them, I will set up shepherds over them who will feed them and they will fear no more" (see also Ezek 37:24ff). Two extended allegories of the shepherd and sheep appear in Ezekiel chapter 34 and John chapter 10.
The NT further develops the flock-shepherd metaphor with Jesus presented as the shepherd. When preaching to the multitudes, Jesus "was moved with compassion for them, because they were like sheep, not having a shepherd. So he began to teach them many things" (Mark 6:34). The Epistle to the Hebrews closes with a reference to Jesus as "that great shepherd of the sheep" (Heb 13:20). Jesus himself is mentioned as the LAMB OF GOD in the Book of Revelation.
SNAIL A small, slow-moving mollusk referred to only once in the Bible. According to Psalm 58:8, the wicked are cursed "like a snail which melts away as it goes". Melts away" apparently refers to the slimy trail left by the snail.
SNAKE See SERPENT above
SOW See SWINE below
SPARROW Any small bird of the finch family found throughout Israel. The OT references are thought to be generic for any small bird. The sparrow nests in a variety of places including rooftops (Ps 102:7); in biblical times it must have also made its home within the Temple area (Ps 84:3). Sparrows were sold at a low price (Luke 12:6) in the market place. Jesus told his disciples that they were "of more value than many sparrows" (Matt 10:31). God is said to watch over every single sparrow (Luke 12:7).
SPIDER An arachnid, known for the delicate web it spins to entrap insects. The spider's web serves as an image of frailty and unreliability: in Job 8:14-15, the hypocrites' trust "is a spider's web. He leans on his house, but it does not stand", and sinners cannot adequately cover themselves with the spider's, "garments" (Is 59:5-6). The spider mentioned in Proverbs 30:28 is translated as "lizard" in some Bible editions.
STORK a large bird resembling a heron; it is among the unclean birds prohibited for Israelite consumption (Lev 11:19; Deut 14:18). The stork is know for its large wing-span (Zech 5:9) and its regular migrations (Jer 8:7). In one of his visions, the prophet Zechariah sees the woman, Wickedness, who possesses "the wings of a stork" (Zech 5:7-9).
SWALLOW A small bird possessing long wings, and known for its graceful flying. Swallows were said to have nested in the Temple area (Ps 84:3) and their flight is alluded to in Proverbs 26:2 and Jeremiah 8:7, while Isaiah 38:14 refers to their cry.
SWINE, SOW A pig, considered unclean as it does not meet the requirement of chewing the cub (Lev 11:7; Deut 14:8). Outside influences, however, must have swayed some Israelites to practice swine-sacrifice as implied in Isaiah 66:3: "He who offers a grain offering, as if he offers swine's blood" (cf Is 65:4; 66:17). For the Jewish people as a whole though, the swine took on a connotation of repulsion, filth and disgust, and biblical authors metaphorically employed the swine to convey this attitude. Proverbs 11:22 states: "As a ring of gold in a swine's snout, so is a lovely woman who lacks discretion."
As a reference to holiness, Jesus instructed his followers not to "cast your pearls before swine" (Matt 7:6). The NT tells how Jesus allowed exorcised demons to inhabit a herd of swine, which then rushed into the sea and drowned (Matt 8:30-32; Mark 5:11-13; Luke 8:32-33). In the parable of the lost son, the younger son, reduced to poverty, became a swineherd (Luke 15:15). A filthy swine, as an image of heresy, is found in II Peter 2:22.
TURTLEDOVE A small bird, often referring to a dove or a pigeon. The Latin designation turtur, like the Hebrew and Ugaritic tor and the Akkadian turtu, is thought to imitate the call of this bird. Brown with a bit of white at the tip of its tail, the turtledove is a migratory bird (Jer 8:7), whose arrival from Africa is one of the signs of the beginning of spring in Israel (Song 2:11-12). In August they return to Africa.
In Psalms 74:19 the turtledove represents a metaphor for the people of Israel. Elsewhere in the Bible the turtledove appears exclusively as a bird to be slaughtered in sacrificial worship. The turtledove is one of the species Abraham was required to sacrifice in concluding the "covenant between the pieces'' (Gen 15:17). It can be presented as a voluntary burnt offering (Lev 1:14) or under certain circumstances, for a guilt offering (Lev 5:7). A woman who has recently given birth is required to present a young dove or a turtledove for a sin offering (Lev 12:6). If she is of limited means, she may substitute a young dove or turtledove for the burnt offering as well, instead of a lamb (Lev 12:8). Luke 2:24 suggests that the provision applied to Mary.
VIPER Any member of a family of poisonous snakes. In Jacob's last blessing, his son Dan is described as "a viper by the path, that bites the horse's heels" (Gen 49:17). The effects of wine are likened to the sting of a viper in Proverbs 23:32. Both Jesus and John the Baptist favored the expression "brood of vipers" as they castigated the Pharisees, the Sadducees and the scribes (Matt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33; Luke 3:7). When Paul was bitten by a viper the natives of Malta anticipated swelling, or even death (Acts 28:3-6).
VULTURE A large bird of prey, related to the eagle and the hawk. A carrion-eater, the vulture is listed among the unclean birds not fit for Israelite consumption (Lev 11:13; Deut 14:12). Abraham protected his sacrifice to the Lord from encroaching vultures (Gen 15:11). In Jeremiah 12:9, the prophet states that his people are acting towards him as a vulture, so he commands that the vultures should surround Israel as appropriate retribution.
WOLF The largest member of the canine family of mammals, and a carnivorous nocturnal hunter. The wolf was common in the Near East, yet most of the biblical references are illustrative and not literal. In Jacob's blessing, Benjamin is described as a "ravenous wolf '', pointing to his fighting abilities (Gen 49:27). The ferocity and voracity of the wolf are applied to the princes of Israel (Ezek 22:27) and the judges of Jerusalem (Zeph 3:3). In the messianic age, "the wolf also shall dwell with the lamb'' (Is 11:6; cf 65:25). In the NT, wolves symbolize false prophets and teachers (Matt 7:15; Acts 20:29), and Jesus sends his apostles to spread his word as sheep in the midst of wolves (Matt 10:16; Luke 10:3).
WORM, MAGGOT A crawling animal. Biblical references allude to the worm itself as well as to the maggot (larval) stages of insects. Worms and maggots are often used as images for the insignificance of man (Job 25:6). The psalmist claims "But I am a worm, and no man'' (Ps 22:6); although the Lord promises to help his people, he nevertheless refers to them as "you worm Jacob'' (Is 41:14). The biological roles of the worm are also noted: as a creature that feeds upon vegetation (Ex 16:20; Jonah 4:7) and upon corpses (Job 21:26; 24:20), especially those of the wicked (Is 51:8; 66:24; cf Mark 9:44-48).
Concordance
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