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Anishinaabe or Anishinabe—or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek, which is the plural form of the word—is a self-description often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonkin peoples, who all speak closely related Anishinaabemowin/Anishinaabe languages.
The meaning of Anishnaabeg is "First-" or "Original-Peoples". Another possible definition refers to "the good humans", or good people, who are on the right road/path given to them by the Creator or Gitchi-manitou (Great Spirit).
Not all Anishinaabemowin speakers, however, call themselves Anishinaabeg. The Ojibwa people who moved to what are now the prairie provinces of Canada, whom the French called the Saulteaux, refer to themselves as Nakawē(-k) and their form of the Anishinaabe language as Nakawēmowin. The term(s) used to describe a particular Anishinaabeg group differs from region to region.
There are many variant spellings of the Anishinaabe name, depending on the transcription scheme and also on whether the name is singular or plural. Therefore, different spelling systems may indicate vowel length or spell certain consonants differently (Anishinabe, Anicinape); meanwhile, variants ending in -eg/ek (Anishinaabeg, Anishinabek) come from an Algonquian plural, while those ending in an -e come from an Algonquian singular.
The name "Anishinaabe" is realised as Nishnaabe, in some parts of North America as well, most prominently among the Odawa. The cognate word Neshnabé comes from Potawatomi, a people long allied with Odawas and Ojibwes in the Council of Three Fires. Identified as Anishinaabe, but not part of the Council of Three Fires, are the Nipissing, Mississaugas and Algonkin. The Algonkin may use the word Omàmiwinini to distinguish themselves from other Anishinaabe.
Closely related to the Ojibwe and speaking a language mutually intelligible with Anishinaabemowin (Anishinaabe language) are the Oji-Cree (also known as "Severn Ojibwe"). However, their most common self-description is Anishinini (plural: Anishininiwag) and their language Anishininiimowin.
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History
According to Anishinaabeg tradition, and from recordings in Wiigwaasabak (birch bark scrolls), the people came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island, and from along the east coast.
There are many oral traditions among the Anishinaabeg telling creation stories. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent beings in human form) appeared to the Anishinaabe peoples in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e. Eastern Land) to teach the people about the midewiwin life-style. One great miigis was too spiritually powerful and would kill people in the Waabanakiing whenever they were in its presence. This being later returned to the depths of the ocean, leaving the six great miigis to teach the people.
Each of the six miigis established separate doodem (clans) for the people. Of these doodem, five clan systems appeared: i) the Awaazisii (Bullhead), ii) the Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), iii) the Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), iv) the Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear), v) and the Moozoonii (Little Moose), and the later addition of the vi) sixth doodem, the Waabizheshi (Marten).
After founding the doodem, the six miigis returned to the depths of the ocean as well. Some oral histories surmise that if the seventh miigis had stayed, it would have established the Animikii Thunderbird doodem.
The powerful miigis that left early, returned in a vision relating a prophecy to the people. It said that if the Anishinaabeg did not move further west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive, because of many new settlements and people not of Anishinaabe blood who would soon arrive. The migration path of the Anishinaabe peoples would become a series of smaller Turtle Islands, confirmed by the miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from the their "Allied Brothers" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e., Abnaki) of their safety in crossing, the Anishinaabeg moved inland. They advanced along the St. Lawrence River to the Ottawa River and through to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes.
The first of these smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, where Mooniyaang (Montreal, Quebec) now stands. Here the Anishinaabeg divided into two groups: one that travelled up the Ottawa River, and the core group that proceeded to the "second stopping place" near Niagara Falls.
By the time the Anishinaabeg established their "third stopping place" near the present city of Detroit, the Anishinaabeg had divided into six distinct nations: Algonquin, Nipissing, Mississaugas, Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi. While the Odawa established their long-held cultural centre on Manitoulin Island, the Ojibwe established their centre in the Sault Ste. Marie region of Ontario, Canada. With expansion of trade under partnerships with the French and later the British, fostered by availability of Small arms, members of the Council of Three Fires expanded southward to the Ohio River, southwestward along the Illinois River, and westward along Lake Superior, Lake of the Woods and the northern Great Plains. In their western expansion, the Ojibwa again divided, forming the seventh major division of the Anishinaabeg: the Saulteaux.
As the Anishinaabeg moved inland, through both alliances and conquest, they incorporated various other closely related Algonquian peoples into the Anishinaabe Nation. These included, but were not limited to, the Noquet (originally part of the Menomini Tribe) and Mandwe (originally part of the Fox). Other incorporated groups can generally be identified by the individual's Doodem (Clan). Migizi-doodem (Bald Eagle Clan) generally identifies those whose ancestors were Americans and Ma'iingan-doodem (Wolf Clan) as Santee Sioux. Other Anishinaabe doodem migrated out of the core Anishinaabeg groupings, such as the Nibiinaabe-doodem (Merman Clan) that is now found as the "Water-spirit Clan" of the Winnebagos. Anishinaabe peoples now reside throughout North America in both the northern United States and southern Canada, chiefly around the Great Lakes and Lake Winnipeg.
After this migration, and the immigration of European newcomers to North America, many Anishinaabeg groups would later enter into treaties with the governments of the Dominion of Canada and the United States of America. Treaty 3 (of the Numbered Treaties) in Canada was signed in 1873 between the Anishinaabe (Ojibwa) people west of the Great Lakes and the government of Canada [1]. Through other treaties and resulting relocations, some Anishinaabeg now reside in the states of Kansas, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Montana in the United States, and the provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia in Canada.
Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and other indigenous groups
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Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and settlers
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The first of the Anishinaabeg to encounter European settlers were those of the Three Fires Confederation, within the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania in the territory of the present-day United States, and southern Ontario and Quebec of Canada Although there were many peaceful interactions between the Anishinaabeg and the European settlers, there were also times of turmoil and war. Many lives were lost on both sides as a result of warfare.
Forms of interaction included the fur trade, intermarriage, and performance as allies. The fur trade involved the Anishinaabeg (as well as other Aboriginal groups) who were relied upon not only for furs but to act as guides throughout the lands of North America. The Anishinaabeg (as well as other Aboriginal groups) began to intermarry with fur traders and settlers (whose descendants would later create the Métis nation), and often created allies and closer relationships in the process.
In French North America
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The earliest Europeans to encounter native peoples in the Great Lakes area were the French voyageurs. They were mainly trappers rather than settlers. Many of the French-language place names in Minnesota and Wisconsin were given by these early explorers.
In British North America
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Originally one people, or a collection of closely related bands, the identities of Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi developed after the Anishinaabeg reached Michilimackinac on their journey westward from the Atlantic coast. Using the Midewiwin scrolls, Potawatomi elder Shup-Shewana dated the formation of the Council of Three Fires to 796 AD at Michilimackinac.
In this Council, the Ojibwe were addressed as the "Older Brother," the Odawa as the "Middle Brother," and the Potawatomi as the "Younger Brother." Consequently, whenever the three Anishinaabe nations are mentioned in this specific and consecutive order of Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi, it is an indicator implying Council of Three Fires as well. In addition, the Ojibwa are the "keepers of the faith," the Odawa are the "keepers of trade," and the Potawatomi are the designated "keepers/maintainers of/for the fire" (boodawaadam), which became the basis for their name Boodewaadamii (Ojibwe spelling) or Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi spelling). The Ottawa (also Odawa, Odaawa, Outaouais, or Trader) are a Native American and First Nations people. Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa or Anishinaabemowin in Eastern Ojibwe syllabics) is the third most commonly spoken Native language in Canada (after Cree and Inuktitut), and the fourth most spoken in North America (behind Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut). Potawatomi is a Central Algonquian language and is spoken around the Great Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin, as well as in Kansas in the United States, and in southern Ontario in Canada, by fewer than 50 people.
Though the Three Fires had several meeting places, Michilimackinac became the preferred meeting place due to its central location. From this place, the Council met for military and political purposes. From this site, the Council maintained relations with fellow Anishinaabeg nations, the Ozaagii (Sac), Odagaamii (Meskwaki), Omanoominii (Menominee), Wiinibiigoo (Ho-Chunk), Naadawe (Iroquois Confederacy), Nii'inaawi-Naadawe (Wyandot), Naadawensiw (Sioux), Wemitigoozhi (France), Zhaaganaashi (England) and the Gichi-mookomaan (the United States). Fort Michilimackinac was an 18th century French, and later British, fort and trading post in the Great Lakes of North America.
Through the totem-system (a totem is any entity which watches over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe [2].) and promotion of trade, the Council generally had a peaceful existence with its neighbours. However, occasional unresolved disputes erupted into wars. Under these conditions, the Council notably fought against the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. During the Seven Years' War, the Council fought against England.[citation needed]
The Anishinaabeg established a relationship with the British similar to that they had with the French. The Three Fires Confederation came out of the interaction with settlers.
In the United States
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During the Northwest Indian War and the War of 1812, the Three Fires Confederacy fought against the United States. After the formation of the United States of America in 1776, the Council became the core member of the Western Lakes Confederacy (also known as "Great Lakes Confederacy"), joining together with the Wyandots, Algonquins, Nipissing, Sacs, Meskwaki and others.
Ending with the signing of the Treaty of Greenville of 1795, the government of the United States had attempted to relocate tribes from the United States to the west of the Mississippi River. Many Anishinaabe refugees from the Revolutionary War, particularly Odawa and Potawatomi migrated north to British-held areas.
Those who remained in the east were subjected to the 1830 Indian Removal policy of the United States; among the Anishinaabeg, the Potawatomi were most affected. The Odawa had been removed from the settlers' paths, so only a handful of communities experienced removal. For the Ojibwa, removal attempts culminated in the Sandy Lake Tragedy and resulted in several hundred deaths. For the Potawatomi, survival without removal meant escaping into Ojibwa-held areas and hiding from the officials of the United States.
After the Sandy Lake Tragedy, the government changed its policy to relocating tribes onto reservations, often by consolidating groups of communities. However, after the Dakota War of 1862, many Anishinaabe communities in Minnesota were relocated and further consolidated.
In Canada
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Population estimates indicate that the Anishinaabeg population in the United States is more numerous than that of Canada. When people of mixed race are included, and given that many of Canada's Anishinaabeg evade census counts, this might be an incorrect estimate.
The Canadian Anishinaabeg are descended from the northern Lake Superior Anishinaabeg, whose original homeland was probably in the vicinity of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan. They separated, with one group going down into Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, southern Ontario and Pennsylvania, while another group migrated straight westward. The ancestors of the Canadian Anishinaabeg moved to the north, and then to the west, where they migrated to eastern British Columbia in the 19th century.
Scholars of the Anishinaabeg will eventually learn if all Anishinaabeg are descended from those Anishinaabeg of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan, or if they are descended from the Algonquin Anishinaabeg of Quebec. The people's history points to the upper peninsula of Michigan as their land of formation, but the Algonquins need further intensive study to determine if all Anishinaabe peoples are directly descended from them.
Unlike their American counterparts, the Anishinaabeg of Canada have managed to withstand the efforts of the European settlers and hold onto their languages. An estimated fifty thousand Canadian Anishinaabeg speak their native tongue. From Quebec to the eastern lands of British Columbia, the Anishinaabeg reserves are, for the most part, smaller in size. This appears to have helped them preserve their languages.
Relations today between the Anishinaabeg and their neighbours
Other indigenous groups
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There are many Anishinaabeg reserves and reservations; in some places the Anishinaabeg share some of their lands with others, such as the Cree,the Dakota, Delaware, and the Kickapoo, among others. The Anishnabek who "merged" with the Kickapoo tribe may now identify as being Kickapoo in Kansas and Oklahoma. The Prairie Potawatomi were the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi of Illinois and Wisconsin who were relocated to Kansas during the 19th century.
Canada
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The Anishinaabe of Manitoba, particularly those along the east side of Lake Winnipeg, have had longstanding historical conflicts with the Cree people.
United States
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The relationships between the various Anishinaabe communities with the United States government have been steadily improving since the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act. Several Anishinaabe communities still experience tensions with the state governments, county governments and with non-Native American individuals and their groups.
Major issues facing the various Anishinaabe communities are:
- cultural and language preservation or revitalization;
- full and independent federal recognition: some Anishinaabe communities are recognized by county or state governments, or are recognized by the federal government only as part of another tribe;
- treaty rights: traditional means of support (hunting, fishing and gathering), establishment of reservations or upholding of the reservation boundaries per treaties and their amendments;
- personal health: diabetes and asthma affect many Anishinaabe communities at a rate higher than the general population; and
- social disparity: poor education, high unemployment, substance abuse/addiction and domestic violence often affect many Anishinaabeg at rates higher than the general population.
Anishinaabe in popular culture
A fictional Anishinaabe clan in Ontario, the Mtigwaki, are featured in the comic strip For Better or For Worse from 2005-2006.
See also
- Algonquin (Omaamiwinini)
- Anishinaabe/Tribal Political Organizations
- Midewiwin
- Mississaugas (Misi-zaagiing)
- Nipissing (Odishkwaagamii)
- Oji-Cree/Severn Ojibwa (Anishinini)
- Oji-Cree language (Anishininiimowin)
- Ojibwa/Chippewa (Ojibwe)
- Ottawa (Odaawaa/Odawa)
- Potawatomi (Boodewaadamii/Bodéwadmi)
- Saulteaux/Plains Ojibwa (Nakawē)
References
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This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (February 2008) |
- ^ Alexander Morris, The Treaties of Canada with the Indians, Belfords , Clarke & Co., Toronto (1880).
- ^ Merriem-Webster Online, http://www.merriam-webster.com/
- Bento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the Ojibwa. The Mishomis Book.
- Warren, William W. History of the Ojibway People. Borealis Books (St. Paul, MN: 1984).
- White, Richard (July 31, 2000). "Chippewas of the Sault", The Sault Tribe News.
External links
- Anishinabek Nation - Union of Ontario Indians
- Algonquin Anishinabeg Nation Tribal Council
- Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians History
- Bemaadizing: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Indigenous Life (An online journal)
- ‘Living’ Cybercartographic Atlas of Indigenous Artifacts and Knowledge
- Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa "The Anishinaabe-Ojibwe people of the Great Lakes" (United States-focused), PBS.
- Ojibwe migratory map from Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa
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