Arab Kingdom of Syria
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Arab Kingdom of Syria
| Arab Kingdom of Syria المملكة العربية السورية al-Mamlakah al-Sūriyya al-‘Arabīyah |
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| Capital | Damascus | |||
| Language(s) | Arabic | |||
| Government | Constitutional Monarchy | |||
| King | ||||
| - 1920 | Faisal I | |||
| Prime Minister | ||||
| - 1920 | Rida Pasha al-Rikabi | |||
| - 1920 | Hashim al-Atassi | |||
| Legislature | National Congress | |||
| Historical era | Interwar period | |||
| - Coronation of Faisal I | 8 March 1920 | |||
| - Battle of Maysalun | 23 July 1920 | |||
| - Siege of Damascus | 24 July 1920 | |||
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The Arab Kingdom of Syria (Arabic: المملكة العربية السورية, al-Mamlakah al-Sūriyya al-‘Arabīyah), was the first modern Arab state to come into existence, and although it officially lasted less than a year (8 March-24 July 1920), its existence has had a lasting impact in the Arab world to this day. Throughout its existence it was led by Sharif Hussein bin Ali’s son Faisal bin Hussein. Faisal was a heroic figure in the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire and is often remembered through the writings of T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) and later as the first King of Iraq.
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Foundations
See also: Arab Revolt
The Arab Revolt and the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence are crucial factors in the foundations of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. In the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence the promises of an Arab Kingdom were made by the British in return for an Arab uprising against the Ottomans.[1]:209-215 As the promises of independence were being made by the British, separate agreements were being made including the Sykes-Picot Agreement with the French. Ultimately, the implementation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement would lead to the undermining and destruction of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. Despite the significance of the Arab Revolt to modern Arab countries formed in its wake, at the time there was significant distrust and even opposition to the idea of an Arab Kingdom or series of Arab Kingdoms.
This is due in part to the heavy influence of the French and the British in compelling the revolt and establishment of what is considered to be by modern standards puppet states.[2]:185-191 Critics claim that this involvement of foreign powers in handing out large sums of money and military support to establish an empire that would be led by imperial aspirants, rather than legitimate Arab nationalists, is the primary cause for the lack of duration of the majority of the early Hashemite Kingdoms (Kingdom of Hejaz and Kingdom of Iraq). Critics go on further to claim it was anathema to many Arabs that the family of the Sharif of Mecca, the Hashemites, could wrest control from the Ottoman Sultan, with whom their loyalty had rested for centuries.[2]:187
The Arab constitutional government
Near the end of World War I, the Egyptian Expeditionary forces of Edmund Allenby captured Damascus on 30 September 1918, and shortly thereafter on 3 October, Faisal entered the city.[1]:30 The jubilation would be short lived, as Faisal would soon be made aware of the Sykes-Picot agreement. Faisal had come to expect an independent Arab kingdom in the name of his father but was soon told of the division of territory and how Syria fell under French protective power. Faisal obviously did not appreciate this betrayal by the British but found reassurance in the knowledge that the actual settlement would be worked out at a later date when the war had ended. He was probably hoping that by then the British would have changed their support for French pretensions in Syria. Thus on 5 October, with the permission of General Allenby, Faisal announced the establishment of a fully and absolutely independent Arab constitutional government.[1]:34
Faisal announced it would be an Arab government based on justice and equality for all Arabs regardless of religion. Much to the chagrin of French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, the establishment of a semi-independent Arab state without international recognition and under the auspices of the British was disconcerting. Even reassurances by Allenby that all actions taken were provisional did not ease the looming tensions between the British, the French and the Arabs. For Arab nationalists, and many of the Arabs who fought in the Arab Revolt, this was the realization of a long hard-fought goal.
Determining the status of the Arab Kingdom
At the Paris Peace Conference the allied victors in World War I negotiated the peace terms for the defeated nations of the Central Powers. Many of these negotiations were over control of areas within former empires, such as the Ottoman Empire. Even when negotiations for a more permanent status of the Kingdom of Syria occurred at the Paris Peace Conference it was still a major problem as Faisal provoked a diplomatic conflict between the French and British when he pushed for Arab independence. An American compromise resulted in an international agreement on setting up a commission to determine the wishes of the inhabitants and to ultimately prove whether the inhabitants truly desired to be a mandate of the French or an independent kingdom. Even though they initially supported the idea, Britain and France would eventually back out creating the solely American King-Crane Commission.[2]:268
The findings of the commission showed native support for an independent Arab kingdom of Syria [3]. Yet around the same time the commission was conceived, it would be determined at a meeting in May 1919 between the French and British Prime Ministers in Quai d’Orsay that the fate of Syria would be decided between the two of them regardless of King-Crane. At this meeting it was decided that in return for a guarantee of French control in Syria the British would gain mandate control of Mosul and Palestine. To many historians it is strange that Clemenceau would give up so much territory that was under French sphere of influence to have an ironclad guarantee over a territory that was essentially under French influence to begin with.[1]:56-57
Nonetheless, this agreement would, unbeknownst to Faisal, render him stuck with accepting whatever power the French would allow him to have. It may seem strange that the French and the British who were historic rivals had reconciled, but the devastation of World War I had caused them to become close in geo-strategic terms. The British could either cooperate with the French in realizing their strategic interests or risk another outbreak of war due to violation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement. Having decided the influence and power of the French was more valuable than that of the Arabs it was decided that the British, despite being strong allies with the Arabs, would have to give up any promises concerning Syria.
The creation of the Arab Kingdom
While events in Europe that would eventually render the Arab Kingdom of Syria into a French mandate transpired, it would also ironically catalyze Syrian nationalist societies like al-Fatat (the Young Arab Society) to make preparations for a national congress. These Syrian nationalist societies advocated complete independence for an Arab Kingdom uniting the Arab world under Faisal. The King-Crane Commission which also arose out of the disputes at the Paris Peace Conference encouraged the need to unify and a hasty election was called including representatives from all over the Arab lands, which included Palestine and Lebanon although French officials prevented many of their representatives from arriving. The first official session of the Syrian Congress was held on 3 June 1919 and al-Fatat member Hashim al-Atassi was elected its president.[4]:17
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On 25 June the King-Crane Commission arrived in Damascus to a flurry of leaflets which said “Independence or Death”. On 2 July the Syrian Congress passed a number of resolutions pertaining to the formation of Syria as a completely independent constitutional monarchy with Faisal as king, asking for assistance from the United States, and the refusal of any rights claimed by the French.[4]:19 This congress is considered by many to be the first national parliament in the history of Syria. They clearly voiced the desire of the Arabs in Syria, if not the Arab world in general. Its significance to the Arab world to this day is staggering. Having representation under one independent and free country is especially important to the Palestinian Arab nationalists, who were represented for the first time in this Congress. The hopes of Faisal that either the British or Americans would come to his aid and intervene against the French quickly faded with what many consider the defining catalyst for the creation and destruction of the Arab Kingdom of Syria: the Anglo-French Agreement. The Anglo-French Agreement provided for the withdrawal of British troops from Syria and signaled the end of the British military government of Syria.
Eventually, Faisal would be forced into negotiations with Clemenceau in January 1920 which stipulated that the French would uphold the existence of the Syrian state and would not station troops in Syria as long as the French government remained the only government supplying advisers, counselors and technical experts.[5]:167 News of this compromise did not bode well with Faisal’s vehemently anti-French and independence minded supporters who immediately pressured Faisal to reverse his commitment to France, which he did. In the aftermath of this reversal, violent attacks against French forces occurred and the Syrian Congress assembled in March 1920 to declare Faisal the king of Syria as well as to officially set up the Arab Kingdom of Syria with Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister. This action was immediately repudiated by the British and French and the San Remo Conference was called together by the League of Nations in April 1920 to explicitly establish the mandate of the French over Syria. This was in turn repudiated by Faisal and his supporters. After months of instability and lack of authority to make good on promises to the French, the commander of French forces General Henri Gouraud gave an ultimatum to King Faisal declaring he surrender or fight on 14 July 1920.[4]:215
The end of the Arab Kingdom
Main article: Franco–Syrian War
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This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
Worried about the results of a long bloody fight with the French, King Faisal himself surrendered but his message would not reach Yusuf al-'Azma, The King's defense minister, ignoring the King, He led a small army to defend Syria from French advance. This army depended mainly on individual weapons which were no match to the french artillery. The Syrian army met the french at Maysalun, the syrian army was easily defeated and General Al Azma was killed at the battle, that resulted in the capture of Damascus on 24 July 1920. The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was put into effect thereafter.
The Arab Kingdom, through its short and tumultuous existence, would become a subject of great inspiration to later Arab liberation movements. It would be the often-repeated story of an Arab people breaking out from their colonial bonds only to be castigated for their revolutionary fervor and resistance to the imperial powers. The symbolism of the fall of the Kingdom of Syria also imparted deep mistrust of European powers, who were seen as liars and oppressors. The actions of the Arab Kingdom of Syria and of Faisal I continually inspires countries Arab leaders and movements seeking to fight foreign influence and establish sovereign nations to this day.
References
- ^ a b c d Zeine N. Zeine. Struggle for Arab Independence: Western Diplomacy and the Rise and Fall of Faisal’s Kingdom in Syria. Caravan Books. Delmar, New York. 1977.
- ^ a b c Efraim Karsh and Inari Karsh. Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East 1789-1923. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1999.
- ^ US Dept of State; International Boundary Study, Jordan – Syria Boundary, No. 94 – December 30, 1969, Pg .10 [1]
- ^ a b c Eliezer Tauber. The Formation of Modern Syria and Iraq. Frank Cass and Co. Ltd. Portland, Oregon. 1995.
- ^ Elie Kedourie. England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire 1914-1921. Mansell Publishing Limited. London, England. 1987.
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