Over the generations, Jews in many communities, both in the Land of Israel and the Diaspora, have created works of art. Until the modern era, Jewish artistic activity was restricted to decoration of the Synagogue and to the beautification of ritual objects used on the Sabbath and Festivals, both among the community and within the family circle. These were often examples of folk art, and they served the religious life style of the Jewish individual, family, and society. Non-Jews were also commissioned to create such objects and it is sometimes impossible to determine whether the artist was himself a Jew.
The approach of biblical and rabbinic law to art was always ambivalent. On the one hand, the Bible contains verses which forbid the making of pictures, statues, and "graven" or sculptured images (Ex. 20:4; Deut. 5:8). This prohibition, elaborated in Deuteronomy 4:16-18, applies to the likeness of any person, animal, bird, fish, or other living creature, and is aimed against Idolatry. On the other hand, detailed expressions of artistry and craftsmanship are given in Exodus 31:2-10 where Bezalel is singled out as one "endowed with a Divine spirit" who was commanded to build the Sanctuary of the wilderness for the God of Israel.
The Sanctuary was made in accordance with a Divine commandment, and its description in the Bible goes into great detail regarding the forms, colors, and materials used in its construction. It was a work of art which served Jewish ritual, as opposed to the Golden Calf Which was destroyed as a symbol of idolatry.
Although it is difficult to produce an accurate reconstruction of the Sanctuary based on descriptions in the Bible, its motifs became common themes in Jewish iconography. Items such as the pillars, the seven-branched lampstand (Menorah), and designs woven into the curtain (Parokhet) of the Ark were repeated in various ritual objects and in arks of synagogues of various eras.
The modest folk character of Jewish art, which often tends to the naive, was a result of both religious and social factors. Fear of drawing and carving likenesses that might serve idolatry was no doubt responsible for these artistic limitations. As opposed to other cultures, in which drawings and statues served as direct objects of veneration and deification to make tangible the sources of holiness, Judaism stressed the decorative role of art, which is classified as "beautifying the commandment" (hiddur mitsvah).
The extent to which Jews were forbidden to express themselves artistically changed from era to era in accordance with prevailing conditions. Some rabbis were stringent and others more lenient in interpreting the biblical prohibition. The liberal approach was conditioned by various factors, among them a feeling of spiritual immunity and security on the part of members of the community, as well as the social, political, and cultural environment in which the Jews lived, and the relationship with the authorities.
Archeological research since the beginning of the 20th century has continually unearthed artistic fragments at various sites, such as ancient synagogues in Capernaum and Khorazin in Galilee and in Sardis in Turkey. There are also mosaic floors in old synagogues dating back to between the fourth and the seventh centuries CE, including Ḥammat Tiberias, Bet Alpha, Gaza, Na'aran, and Bet She'an in Israel and Hamam in Tunisia. Most remarkable are the walls of the fourth century synagogue at Dura-Europos in Syria, covered with frescoes of biblical scenes.
The sages, at various times, determined what was permitted or forbidden artistically. One of the items forbidden was three-dimensional representation, but a distinction was made between raised, flat, and sunken reliefs. Free sculpture and raised reliefs were. considered to verge on idolatry, and Jews therefore developed other techniques such as mosaics, illuminated manuscripts, metal engravings, embroidery, appliqué work, and papercuts as well as flat reliefs on synagogue arks and gravestones. Apart from religious factors, unstable economic and social conditions, recurrent expulsions, and heavy fines imposed on the Jews also had the effect of restricting monumental art and of concentrating effort on the decoration of portable objects. Very few ritual objects have survived from ancient times and the Middle Ages. Many must have been destroyed. Alternatively, it is possible that, owing to the limitations imposed upon them by the guilds in Christian Europe, very few Jews were able to make ritual objects of high artistic and esthetic quality. Among the most common artistic objects are decorations for the Scrolls of the Law (see Torah Ornaments), and the Esther scroll (Megillah), illuminated manuscripts, ḥanukkah lamps, Kiddush cups, candlesticks, Spice Boxes, marriage documents (Ketubbot), and utensils to be used at the festive table.
Many Jewish craftsmen in Islamic lands engaged in metal work, producing beautiful silver and copper utensils. In Eastern Europe, wherever there were abundant forests, wood carvings of a high standard could be found in many of the synagogues. There were also Jewish artists who painted the walls and ceilings of East European synagogues in bright colors. Unique schools of Hebrew manuscript illumination developed in Spain, Germany, and Italy. Among the books most commonly illustrated was the Passover Haggadah. These handwritten books, most of which were commissioned by wealthy families, included pictures and representations of people; in medieval Germany, human figures were sometimes depicted with animal heads so as not to portray the human face. The development of printing in the 15th century did not mark the end of such illustrated volumes.
The decorating of ritual objects is mostly characterized by symmetrical compositions and by a continuous tradition of symbols. Despite the influence of surrounding non-Jewish cultures, the images and symbols are faithful to mainstream Jewish thought and express the common faith prevalent among the community. The motifs most commonly found in ritual objects and on the synagogue Ark were those symbolizing the Sanctuary, the Temple, and Jerusalem. The artistry present in the Temple is only known from descriptions in the Bible and early Jewish sources. It may be assumed that even the earliest extant images of the Temple, such as those on coins of the Bar Kokhba period, were not based on reality but on accounts of it. However, over the course of time, the portrayals (now often idealized) of the Temple structure and its ritual objects became symbols accepted by the Jewish masses and handed down by tradition from one generation to the next. In addition to Temple motifs such as a gate, pillars, the table and showbread, the seven-branched Menorah, basin, tongs, ram's horn (Shofar), and the Cherub, Jewish visual symbolism was later enriched by new motifs derived from the surrounding culture and integrated within the general system. These motifs, symbolizing links with the past and the physical and metaphysical longing for redemption, included lions, eagles, deer, griffins, and other beasts, signs of the Zodiac, and carvings on the ets ḥayyim, wooden rollers of Torah scrolls.
Until modern times, individual Jewish artists are hardly known, although some of those who designed mosaics, illuminated manuscripts, painted synagogues, or fashioned ritual objects have been identified. Only from the late 18th century, in the period of Emancipation and Enlightenment, did conditions become ripe for such a change. Jews became prominent in general art and some depicted Jewish subjects. The pioneer Jewish artist of the 19th century was Moritz Oppenheim (1799-1882), who worked in Germany and excelled in portraiture, in painting biblical scenes, and in depicting observance of the Jewish festivals in synagogue and home.
The 19th century witnessed the building of magnificent synagogues as previous architectural restrictions were abolished (see Synagogue). Modern esthetic values were applied both to synagogue design and to ritual objects. American Jews have pioneered in forms of ritual ornamentation, and many of the greatest U.S. artists---both Jewish and non-Jewish---have contributed to this efflorescence, which combines beauty with holiness.
