1965 -
Syrian army officer, ophthalmologist, president of the Syrian Arab Republic since 2000.
Born in Damascus on 11 September 1965, Bashshar al-Asad was the second son of the late president, Hafiz al-Asad. He attended the Franco-Arab alHurriyet school in Damascus and Damascus University, studying medicine and specializing in ophthalmology. He had three brothers and a sister, all of whom, at the insistence of their father, completed their education in Syria. The ethos of the Asad household was somewhat puritanical. While the children saw little of their father, they were intensely loyal to him. Bashshar al-Asad later continued his postgraduate education and specialization in the United Kingdom.
Asad entered the Homs Military Academy in 1994, graduating first in his class and rising quickly through the ranks to become a colonel in 1999. Immediately entrusted with heavier military and political responsibilities than would be justified by his junior rank, he later became commander in chief of the armed forces as well as secretary general of the Baʿth party. Also president of the Syrian Computer Society, an organization devoted to promoting the diffusion of information technology throughout the country, Asad's role there has often been cited as an indication of his interest in modernization.
After his father's death, Asad was elected to a seven-year presidential term on 10 July 2000, receiving 97.29 percent of the official vote tally. He was sworn in as the sixteenth president of the Syrian Arab Republic on 17 July 2000. In a speech immediately after the ceremony, he set the tone for the early years of his administration, emphasizing the dual themes of continuity and change that have characterized his presidency.
Asad immediately displayed political skill by gracefully eliminating potential political rivals and promoting younger officials dedicated to economic and technological modernization. He also made clear his distaste for the cult of personality, a prominent feature of his father's regime. Another sign of a more liberal inclination was his promise to activate the role of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of political groups established in 1972 and dominated by the Baʿth party. Asad also granted amnesty to several hundred political prisoners, including members of the Muslim Brotherhood and some communists. Another noteworthy step was to decree a 25 percent salary raise for public sector workers.
Growing regional conflict later diverted Asad's attention from domestic issues, dampening expectations of rapid economic and political change. Early liberalization measures, known as the Damascus Spring, were soon tarnished by steps taken to reassert the authority of the old regime, including a crackdown in 2001 on political discussion groups and the imprisonment of prodemocracy militants. Asad then reversed course in mid-2003, implementing a new round of minor reform measures, dismissed by some as cosmetic. Baʿth party officials were told to stay out of the day-to-day running of the bureaucracy, three private banks were licensed in an important step toward reforming the state-dominated economy, and two new private universities and four radio stations were approved. Broader economic reforms were delayed, in part out of fear of possible political destabilization; consequently, the economy remained the primary long-term issue in Syrian domestic politics.
When compared with the domestic front, there was less immediate movement on regional and international levels. Syria remains committed to a just and comprehensive Middle East peace, including the recovery of every inch of Syrian territory. With this as the top national priority, Syrian foreign policy continues to revolve around three axes: Egypt - Saudi Arabia - Syria, Iran - Syria, and Lebanon - Syria. Departures in foreign policy under Asad include a dramatic opening to Iraq, better relations with Turkey, and support for the Palestinian intifada. The unresolved peace process with Israel continues to cloud development of healthy relations between Syria and the United States. In the process, the Israeli - Palestinian conflict, U.S. occupation of Iraq, and concerns that the war on terrorism could target Syria all reinforce the intransigence of the old guard in Syrian politics and become a pretext for obstructing change in both external and internal policies.
Bibliography
Hinnebusch, Raymond A. Syria: Revolution from Above. London: Taylor & Francis, 2002.
Seale, Patrick. Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
Van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics andSociety Under Asad and the Baʿth Party. New York; London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.
— RONALD BRUCE ST JOHN
