Bernoulli polynomials: Definition and Much More from Answers.com

Wikipedia: Bernoulli polynomials

In mathematics, the Bernoulli polynomials occur in the study of many special functions and in particular the Riemann zeta function and the Hurwitz zeta function. This is in large part due to the fact that they are an Appell sequence, i.e. a Sheffer sequence for the ordinary derivative operator. Unlike orthogonal polynomials, the Bernoulli polynomials are remarkable in that the number of crossings of the x-axis in the unit interval does not go up as the degree of the polynomials goes up. In the limit of large degree, the Bernoulli polynomials, appropriately scaled, approach the sine and cosine functions.

Bernoulli polynomials

Representations

The Bernoulli polynomials B_n admit a variety of different representations. Which among them should be taken to be the definition may depend on one's purposes.

Explicit formula

$B_n(x) = \sum_{k=0}^n {n \choose k} b_k x^{n-k},$

for n ≥ 0, where b_k are the Bernoulli numbers.

Generating functions

The generating function for the Bernoulli polynomials is

$\frac{t e^{xt}}{e^t-1}= \sum_{n=0}^\infty B_n(x) \frac{t^n}{n!}.$

The generating function for the Euler polynomials is

$\frac{2 e^{xt}}{e^t+1}= \sum_{n=0}^\infty E_n(x) \frac{t^n}{n!}.$

Representation by a differential operator

The Bernoulli polynomials are also given by

$B_n(x)={D \over e^D -1} x^n$

where D = d/dx is differentiation with respect to x and the fraction is expanded as a formal power series.

Representation by an integral operator

The Bernoulli polynomials are the unique polynomials determined by

$\int_x^{x+1} B_n(u)\,du = x^n.$

The integral operator

$(Tf)(x) = \int_x^{x+1} f(u)\,du$

on polynomials f, is the same as

$(Tf)(x) = {e^D - 1 \over D}f(x) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty {D^n \over (n+1)!}f(x) = f(x) + {f'(x) \over 2} + {f''(x) \over 6} + {f'''(x) \over 24} + \cdots.$

Another explicit formula

An explicit formula for the Bernoulli polynomials is given by

$B_m(x)= \sum_{n=0}^m \frac{1}{n+1} \sum_{k=0}^n (-1)^k {n \choose k} (x+k)^m.$

Note the remarkable similarity to the globally convergent series expression for the Hurwitz zeta function. Indeed, one has

B n (x) = - n ζ(1 - n, x)

where $ζ(s, q)$ is the Hurwitz zeta; this, in a certain sense, the Hurwitz zeta generalizes the Bernoulli polynomials to non-integer values of n.

The inner sum may be understood to be the nth forward difference of $x m$ ; that is,

$\Delta^n x^m = \sum_{k=0}^n (-1)^{n-k} {n \choose k} (x+k)^m$

where Δ is the forward difference operator. Thus, one may write

$B_m(x)= \sum_{n=0}^m \frac{(-1)^n}{n+1} \Delta^n x^m.$

This formula may be derived from an identity appearing above as follows: since the forward difference operator Δ is equal to

$\Delta = e^D - 1\,$

where D is differentiation with respect to x, we have

${D \over e^D - 1} = {\log(\Delta + 1) \over \Delta} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty {(-\Delta)^n \over n+1}.$

As long as this operates on an mth-degree polynomial such as x^m, one may let n go from 0 only up to m.

An integral representation for the Bernoulli polynomials is given by the Nörlund-Rice integral, which follows from the expression as a finite difference.

An explicit formula for the Euler polynomials is given by

$E_m(x)= \sum_{n=0}^m \frac{1}{2^n} \sum_{k=0}^n (-1)^k {n \choose k} (x+k)^m.$

This may also be written in terms of the Euler numbers $E k$ as

$E_m(x)= \sum_{k=0}^m {m \choose k} \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^k \left(x-\frac{1}{2}\right)^{m-k} E_k\,.$

Sums of pth powers

We have

$\sum_{k=0}^{x} k^p = \frac{B_{p+1}(x+1)-B_{p+1}(0)}{p+1}.$

See Faulhaber's formula for more on this.

The Bernoulli and Euler numbers

The Bernoulli numbers are given by $B n = B n (0).$

The Euler numbers are given by $E n = 2 n E n (1 / 2).$

Explicit expressions for low degrees

The first few Bernoulli polynomials are:

$B_0(x)=1\,$

$B_1(x)=x-1/2\,$

$B_2(x)=x^2-x+1/6\,$

$B_3(x)=x^3-\frac{3}{2}x^2+\frac{1}{2}x\,$

$B_4(x)=x^4-2x^3+x^2-\frac{1}{30}\,$

$B_5(x)=x^5-\frac{5}{2}x^4+\frac{5}{3}x^3-\frac{1}{6}x\,$

$B_6(x)=x^6-3x^5+\frac{5}{2}x^4-\frac{1}{2}x^2+\frac{1}{42}.\,$

The first few Euler polynomials are

$E_0(x)=1\,$

$E_1(x)=x-1/2\,$

$E_2(x)=x^2-x\,$

$E_3(x)=x^3-\frac{3}{2}x^2+\frac{1}{4}\,$

$E_4(x)=x^4-2x^3+x\,$

$E_5(x)=x^5-\frac{5}{2}x^4+\frac{5}{2}x^2-\frac{1}{2}\,$

$E_6(x)=x^6-3x^5+5x^3-3x.\,$

Differences and derivatives

The Bernoulli and Euler polynomials obey many relations from umbral calculus:

Δ B n (x) = B n (x + 1) - B n (x) = n x n - 1,

Δ E n (x) = E n (x + 1) - E n (x) = 2 x n .

(Δ is the forward difference operator).

These polynomial sequences are Appell sequences:

$B_n'(x)=nB_{n-1}(x),\,$

$E_n'(x)=nE_{n-1}(x).\,$

Translations

$B_n(x+y)=\sum_{k=0}^n {n \choose k} B_k(x) y^{n-k}$

$E_n(x+y)=\sum_{k=0}^n {n \choose k} E_k(x) y^{n-k}$

These identities are also equivalent to saying that these polynomial sequences are Appell sequences. (Hermite polynomials are another example.)

Symmetries

$B_n(1-x)=(-1)^n B_n(x)\,$

$E_n(1-x)=(-1)^n E_n(x)\,$

$(-1)^n B_n(-x) = B_n(x) + nx^{n-1}\,$

$(-1)^n E_n(-x) = -E_n(x) + 2x^n\,$

Zhi-Wei Sun and Hao Pan [1] established the following surprising symmetric relation: If $r + s + t = n$ and $x + y + z = 1$ , then

r [s, t; x, y] n + s [t, r; y, z] n + t [r, s; z, x] n = 0,

where

$[s,t;x,y]_n=\sum_{k=0}^n(-1)^k{s \choose k}{t\choose {n-k}} B_{n-k}(x)B_k(y).$

Fourier series

The Fourier series of the Bernoulli polynomials is also a Dirichlet series and is a special case of the Hurwitz zeta function

$B_n(x) = -\Gamma(n+1) \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{ \exp (2\pi ikx) + (-1)^n \exp (2\pi ik(1-x)) } { (2\pi ik)^n }.$

This expansion is valid only for $0\leq x\leq 1$ when $n \geq 2$ and is valid for $0 < x < 1$ when $n = 1$ .

Defining the functions

$C_\nu(x) = \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac {\cos((2k+1)\pi x)} {(2k+1)^\nu}$

and

$S_\nu(x) = \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac {\sin((2k+1)\pi x)} {(2k+1)^\nu}$

for $ν > 1$ , the Euler polynomial has the Fourier series

$C_{2n}(x) = \frac{(-1)^n}{4(2n-1)!} \pi^{2n} E_{2n-1} (x)$

and

$S_{2n+1}(x) = \frac{(-1)^n}{4(2n)!} \pi^{2n+1} E_{2n} (x)$

Note that the $C ν$ and $S ν$ are odd and even, respectively:

C ν (x) = - C ν (1 - x)

and

S ν (x) = S ν (1 - x)

They are related to the Legendre chi function $χ ν$ as

C ν (x) = Reχ ν (e i x)

and

S ν (x) = Imχ ν (e i x)

Inversion

The Bernoulli polynomials may be inverted to express the monomial in terms of the polynomials. Specifically, one has

$x^n = \frac {1}{n+1} \sum_{k=0}^n {n+1 \choose k} B_k (x).$

Relation to falling factorial

The Bernoulli polynomials may be expanded in terms of the falling factorial $(x) k$ as

$B_{n+1}(x) = B_{n+1} + \sum_{k=0}^n \frac{n+1}{k+1} \left\{ \begin{matrix} n \\ k \end{matrix} \right\} (x)_{k+1}$

where $B n = B n (0)$ and

$\left\{ \begin{matrix} n \\ k \end{matrix} \right\} = S(n,k)$

denotes the Stirling number of the second kind. The above may be inverted to express the falling factorial in terms of the Bernoulli polynomials:

$(x)_{n+1} = \sum_{k=0}^n \frac{n+1}{k+1} \left[ \begin{matrix} n \\ k \end{matrix} \right] \left(B_{k+1}(x) - B_{k+1} \right)$

where

$\left[ \begin{matrix} n \\ k \end{matrix} \right] = s(n,k)$

denotes the Stirling number of the first kind.

Multiplication theorems

The multiplication theorems were given by Joeseph Ludwig Raabe in 1851:

$B_n(mx)= m^{n-1} \sum_{k=0}^{m-1} B_n \left(x+\frac{k}{m}\right)$

$E_n(mx)= m^n \sum_{k=0}^{m-1} (-1)^k E_n \left(x+\frac{k}{m}\right) \quad \mbox{ for } m=1,3,\dots$

$E_n(mx)= \frac{-2}{n+1} m^n \sum_{k=0}^{m-1} (-1)^k B_{n+1} \left(x+\frac{k}{m}\right) \quad \mbox{ for } m=2,4,\dots$

Integrals

Indefinite integrals

$\int_a^x B_n(t)\,dt = \frac{B_{n+1}(x)-B_{n+1}(a)}{n+1}$

$\int_a^x E_n(t)\,dt = \frac{E_{n+1}(x)-E_{n+1}(a)}{n+1}$

Definite integrals

$\int_0^1 B_n(t) B_m(t)\,dt = (-1)^{n-1} \frac{m! n!}{(m+n)!} B_{n+m} \quad \mbox { for } m,n \ge 1$

$\int_0^1 E_n(t) E_m(t)\,dt = (-1)^{n} 4 (2^{m+n+2}-1)\frac{m! n!}{(m+n+2)!} B_{n+m+2}$

References

Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, (1972) Dover, New York. (See Chapter 23)

Tom M. Apostol Introduction to Analytic Number Theory, (1976) Springer-Verlag, New York. (See Chapter 12.11)

Djurdje Cvijović and Jacek Klinowski, "New formulae for the Bernoulli and Euler polynomials at rational arguments", Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society'123 (1995), 1527-1535.

Jesus Guillera and Jonathan Sondow, Double integrals and infinite products for some classical constants via analytic continuations of Lerch's transcendent (2005) (Reviews relationship to the Hurwitz zeta function and Lerch transcendent.)

Kurtulan, Ali Burak "Bernoulli Polynomials and Their Applications"

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Bernoulli polynomial