black fly

Black fly
Simulium yahense
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Subphylum:	Hexapoda
Class:	Insecta
Subclass:	Pterygota
Infraclass:	Neoptera
Superorder:	Endopterygota
Order:	Diptera
Suborder:	Nematocera
Infraorder:	Culicomorpha
Superfamily:	Chironomoidea
Family:	Simuliidae Newman, 1834
Subfamilies
Parasimuliinae Simuliinae Genera Araucnephia Araucnephioides Archicnephia Austrosimulium Baisomyia Cnephia Cnesia Cnesiamima Crozetia Ectemnia Gigantodax Greniera Gydarina Gymnopais Kovalevimyia Levitinia Lutzsimulium Mayacnephia Metacnephia Paracnephia Parasimulium Paraustrosimulium Pedrowygomyia Prosimulium Simuliites Simulimima Simulium Stegopterna Sulcicnephia Tlalocomyia Twinnia

A black fly (sometimes called a buffalo gnat, turkey gnat, or white socks) is any member of the family Simuliidae of the Culicomorpha infraorder. They are related to the Ceratopogonidae, Chironomidae, and Thaumaleidae. There are over 1,800 known species of black flies (of which 11 are extinct). Most species belong to the immense genus Simulium. Most black flies gain nourishment by feeding on the blood of other animals, although the males feed mainly on nectar. They are usually small, black or gray, with short legs, and antennae. They are a common nuisance for humans, and many U.S. states have programs to suppress the black fly population. They spread several diseases, including river blindness in Africa (Simulium damnosum and S. neavei) and the Americas (Simulium callidum and S. metallicum in Central America, S. ochraceum in Central and South America).

Ecology

Eggs are laid in running water, and the larvae attach themselves to rocks. Breeding success is highly sensitive to water pollution.^[1] The larvae use tiny hooks at the end of the abdomen to hold on to the substrate, using silk holdfasts and threads to move or hold their place. They have foldable fans surrounding their mouths. The fans expand when feeding, catching passing debris (small organic particles, algae, and bacteria). The larva scrapes the fan's catch into its mouth every few seconds. Black flies depend on lotic habitats to bring food to them. They will pupate under water and then emerge in a bubble of air as flying adults. They are often preyed upon by trout during emergence.

Black fly biting

Adult males feed on nectar while females also feed on blood. Some species in Africa can range as far as 40 miles from aquatic breeding sites in search of their blood meals, while other species have more limited range. Different species prefer different host sources for their blood meal, which is sometimes reflected in the common name for the species. They feed in the daytime, preferably when wind speeds are low. DEET-based insect repellents may attract greater numbers of black flies; permethrin products designed for ticks are effective but can only be applied to clothing, limiting their utility.^[2]

Black flies may be either univoltine or multivoltine depending on the species. The number of generations a particular pest species has each year tends to correlate with the intensity of human efforts to control those pests.

Regional effects of black fly populations

• In the wetter parts of the northern latitudes of North America, including parts of Canada, New England, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, black fly populations swell from Mid-May to July, becoming a nuisance to humans engaging in common outdoor activitites such as boating, camping, and backpacking. They can also be a significant nuisance in mountainous areas.
• Black flies are a scourge to livestock in Canada, causing weight loss in cattle and, in some cases, death. ^[3]
• The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, in the United States, operates the largest single black fly control program in North America. The program is seen as beneficial to both the quality of life for residents and to the state's tourism industry.[1]
• The Blandford Fly (Simulium posticatum) in England was once a public health problem in the area around Blandford Forum, Dorset, due to its large numbers and the painful lesions caused by its bite. It was eventually controlled by carefully targeted applications of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis. ^[4]

Role in human disease

The black fly is central to the transmission of the parasitic nematode Onchocerca volvulus, which causes Onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness. It serves as the larval host for the nematode and acts as the vector by which the disease is spread. Transmission of the parasite occurs through the bite of a black fly when feeding on human blood. Simolium pruinosum bite is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of Fogo Selvagem, the endemic form of pemphigus foliaceus, a bullous dermatosis.

See also

• "The Black Fly Song", a song by Wade Hemsworth inspired by his experiences with them
• Use of DNA in forensic entomology

Common names in other languages

• German: kriebel; Norwegian: knott; Polish: meszkowate Finnish: Mäkärä;
• French: simulie; Swedish: knott; Central America: bocone
• South America, Chile: Jerjel; Venezuela: Jején
• Comprehensive list of local names for Simuliidae

Notes

References

• Black Flies Fact Sheet from Ohio State University
• Extensive Simuliidae (black fly) Web pages at blackfly.org.uk
• Black fly species inventory
• FAQ about black flies in Maine

External links

• Taxonomy and systematics of Simuliidae
• Diptera.info Gallery Images
• Comprehensive list of local names for Simuliidae