The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah comprise the main source of information for the crucial period of the return from the Babylonian Exile. This was a formative time of transition between the biblical age of the First Temple (destroyed in 586 B.C.) and the emerging Jewish commonwealth of the Second Temple period. The picture which emerges from these books can be supplemented by information and impressions from the books of the post-exilic prophets, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The men of that period highly esteemed the traditions of Israel's past, and endeavored to utilize them as the base for shaping the reborn Jewish society. The acts and decrees of Ezra and Nehemiah convey an ongoing reinterpretation of tradition, and its application to changing circumstances, inspired by a genuine creativity in the fields of literature, religious thought and cultic organization. Here also are the beginnings of the exegetical and hermeneutical techniques of the midrash later applied by the sages of the Second Temple period to the interpretation of biblical literature.
Although early traditions viewed Ezra-Nehemiah as one work, written for the most part, along with the Books of Chronicles, by Ezra the scribe (in the Vulgate, the Latin Translation, Ezra is I Esdras and Nehemiah is II Esdras), recent linguistic and stylistic studies show the three works to be separate compositions. Historically, Ezra-Nehemiah are a sequel to Chronicles, since they open at Cyrus' decree, with which Chronicles ends. However, in most manuscripts and printed editions, Ezra-Nehemiah directly precede Chronicles in the biblical canon. Chronicles was probably transferred from its original place to the end of the Hebrew Bible because it was regarded as a summary of the whole sacred story.
In their present arrangement, the Books of Ezra-Nehemiah span approximately a century, from the decree of Cyrus the Great, emperor of Persia, in 538 B.C. (sanctioning the return of the exiles and the eventual rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem) -– to about 420 B.C., the beginning of the reign of Darius II.
From the point of view of internal Jewish history, the books cover three main periods, which may be identified by the personalities who exerted influence and leadership over the Jewish people in those times: Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel, with the prophets Haggai and Zechariah; Ezra the scribe, and Nehemiah, governor of the Persian province of Judah.
In the absence of clear chronology in Ezra chapters 2-4, the relationship between Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel is problematic, the same information being reported of the two. Both men were of royal descent, and both were governors of Judah (Ezra 1:8; Hag 1:1, etc.). If Sheshbazzar is an alternate form of Shenazzar (1 Chr 3:18), then Sheshbazzar was Zerubbabel's uncle, and both were of the line of David. Zerubbabel, however, was especially invested with messianic (regal) glory, as leader of the major wave of returning exiles (Ezra 2:1-2), while Sheshbazzar received the restored Temple vessels from the Persian treasury on behalf of the Jewish community (Ezra 1:7-8).
The return may have occurred in two stages: the first led by Sheshbazzar in 538 B.C., and the larger one led by Zerubbabel a few years later. Both leaders are credited with laying the foundations for the new Temple (Ezra 3:8-10; 5:16), but the reference to Sheshbazzar is dubious here; it would seem that the project belonged wholly to Zerubbabel who, however, did not complete the Temple, for he is not mentioned in the account of the dedication (Ezra 6:14-18).
The relationship between Ezra and Nehemiah has been the subject of much scholarly debate. the biblical sources (Ezra chap. 7; Neh chap. 2) indicate that Ezra came to Jerusalem "in the seventh year of artaxerxes" (458 B.C.) and Nehemiah 13 years later (445 B.C.). Some scholars have tried to prove, from chronological inconsistencies, that Nehemiah must have come before Ezra. However, in the light of recent archeological evidence, including Aramaic seal-impressions from the persian period, the traditional view seems most credible; Ezra preceded Nehemiah as a functionary of the persian regime in Judah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464-424 B.C.).
From a literary point of view, Ezra-Nehemiah are a compilation of diverse sources and documents, as can be clearly seen through the interweaving of Hebrew and Aramaic accounts in Ezra chapters 1-6. The books are composed of three main blocks of material: the Sheshbazzar-Zerubbabel section, the Ezra memoirs and the Nehemiah memoirs. All three blocks show a similarity in structure and in the literary types of which they are composed: (a) Documents: e.g. the Aramaic edict of Cyrus and its Hebrew variant (Ezra 6:3-5; 1:2-4). (b) Letters: correspondence between officials in Palestine and the Persian court (Ezra 4:8-22; 5:7-17; Neh 6:2-9). (c) Lists: these include inventories of the Temple vessels (Ezra 1:9-11; 8:26-27); rosters of returnees (Ezra 2:1-70; Neh 7:7-72); lists of repatriates who married alien wives (Ezra 10:18-44); rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 3:1-32); resided in Jerusalem (Neh 11:3-24); resettled Judah and Benjamin (Neh 11:25-36); served as priests and Levites (Neh 12:1-26); and signed Nehemiah's covenant with all of its obligations (Neh 9:38-10:27; 10:28-39). (d) Prayers: of Ezra (9:6-15) and Nehemiah (1:5-11).
These and other sources were woven together through a multi-phase literary process. Although the editor of Ezra-Nehemiah did not inform his readers of the considerations which guided him in his work, a study of the text's style and structure reveals traces of the basic components of the books and of the process of compilation. Taken together with historical and archeological investigations, they serve as guidelines in an attempt to rearrange the constituent units, and achieve a clearer picture of the period: (1) the era of Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel: (Ezra 1:1-4, 5-11; 2:1-67; 2:68-69, 70; 3:1-3, 4-6, 7, 8-9, 10-13; 4:1-3, 4-5, 6-12; 5:1-2; 5:3-6:13, 14-15, 16-18, 22). After the dedication of the Temple (515 B.C.) there is a narrative hiatus of some 70 years, a gap bridged somewhat by the transposition of Ezra 4:6-22 as suggested above. The history continues with Ezra's return in 458 B.C.; (2) Ezra's leadership: (Ezra 7:1-8:36; Neh 8:1-9:37; Ezra 9:1; Neh 13:1-3; Ezra 6:19-22; 9:2-10:44); (3) Nehemiah's term of office: (Neh 1:1-7:73; 9:38-10:39; 11:1-12:26, 27-43; 12:44-47; 13:4-29; 13:30-31).
