Cantonist

Cantonists (Russian language: Кантонисты, the term adapted from Prussia for "recruiting district") were sons of Russian conscripts who from 1721 were educated in special "canton schools" (Кантонистские школы) for future military service (the schools were called garrison schools in the 18th century).

Cantonist Schools during the 18th and early 19th centuries

Cantonist schools were established by the 1721 decree of Tsar Peter the Great that stipulated that every regiment was required to maintain a school for 50 boys. Their enrollment was increased in 1732, and the term was set from the age of 7 to 15. The curriculum included grammar and arithmetic, and those with a corresponding aptitude were taught artillery, fortification, music and singing, scrivenery, equine veterinary, or mechanics. Those lacking in any talent were taught carpentry, blacksmithery, shoemaking and other trades useful to the military. The ablest ones were taught for additional 3 years, until the age of 18. All entered military service at the completion of their studies. The decree of 1758 required all male children of the military personnel to be taught in the cantonist schools. In 1798 a military "asylum-orphanage" was established in St. Petersburg, and all regimental schools were renamed after it, the total enrollment reaching 16 400.

The schools were reorganized in 1805 and all children were now referred to as cantonists. In 1824 all cantonist schools were made answerable to the Director of Military Settlements Count Aleksey Arakcheyev, and in 1826 they were organized into cantonist battalions. During the reign of the Nicholas I of Russia the number of cantonists reached 36,000. Several cantonist battalions became specialized: they prepared auditors, artillerists, engineers, military surgeons, cartographers.

More children were added to the category of cantonists. Eventually children of the discharged soldiers were also included, illegitimate children of soldiers' wives' or widows', and even foundlings.

There were several exemptions:

1. Legitimate sons of staff-officers, and all officers awarded the Order of St. Vladimir 4th class.
2. A single son of a junior staff-officer, out of a total number of his children, if he had no sons born after his attainment of the officer's rank.
3. A single son of a junior officer maimed in battle.
4. A single son of a widow of a junior officer or an enlisted man killed in action or deceased during service.

Cantonism and ethnic minorities

After 1827 the term was applied also to Jewish and Karaite boys ^[1][2][3], who were drafted to military service at the age of twelve and placed for their six-year military education in cantonist schools. Like all other conscripts, they were required to serve in the Russian army for 25 years after the completion of their studies. In 1834 the term was reduced to 20 years plus 5 years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus 3 years of reserve.^[4] According to the "Statute on Conscription Duty" signed by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia on August 26 (September 7 new style) 1827 Jews were made liable to personal military service and were subject to the same conscription quota as all other tax-paying estates ("sosloviya") in the Russian Empire. The total number of conscrips was uniform for all populations (four conscripts per each thousand subjects), however the actual recruitment was implemented by the local kahals and so a disproportionate number of Jewish conscripts were underage ^[5].

The main goal behind the compulsory military service was the integration of Jews and other non-Russian minorities into Russian society (effectively to the detriment of their religious and national identities). Ukrainian and Polish cantonists were also pressured to assimilate, as part of general policy of Russification. However, in the case of Jews, unlike similar measures implemented earlier by the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Joseph II the Russian policy failed to provide greater civil and economic rights.

The vast majority of Jews entered the Russian Empire with the territories acquired as the result of the last Partitions of Poland of the 1790s; their civil rights were severely restricted (see Pale of Settlement). Most lacked knowledge of the official Russian language. Before 1827, Jews were doubly taxed in lieu of being obligated to serve in the army (communities had to pay 500 roubles per each exempted potential Jewish recruit (the tax was 360 roubles for non-Jews))^[6], and their inclusion was supposed to alleviate this burden. However the number of recruits reduced the number of young men that could go into the workforce, and this in combination with political restrictions led to widespread destitution.

Russia was divided into northern, southern, eastern, and western “conscription zones” and the levy was announced annually for only one of them. The Pale of Jewish settlement was outside conscription in the fallow years, so the conscription in general and of cantonists in particular occurred once every four years. The first 1827 draft involved some 1,800 Jewish conscripts, by the Kahal's decision half of them were children. In 1843 the conscription system was extended to the Kingdom of Poland that was previously exempt from it.

There were some significant differences in treatment of Jews and non-Jews: Jews were required to provide conscripts between the ages of 12 and 25, but all others between 18 and 35. This system created disproportionate number of Jewish cantonists, and betrayed the utilitarian agenda of the statute: to draft those more likely to be susceptible to external influence, and thus to assimilation.

Strains within the Jewish community

Strict quotas were imposed on kahals and the leaders were given the unpleasant task of implementation of conscription in their own communities. As the merchant-guild members, agricultural colonists, factory mechanics, clergy, and all Jews with secondary education were exempt and the wealthy bribed their way out of having their children conscripted, the policy deeply sharpened internal Jewish social tensions. Seeking to protect the economic, social, and religious integrity of Jewish society, the kahals did their best to include “non-useful Jews” in the draft lists so that the heads of tax-paying middle-class families were predominantly exempt from conscription, whereas single Jews, as well as "heretics" (enlightenment-minded individuals), paupers, outcasts, and orphaned children were drafted. They used their power to suppress protests and intimidate potential informers who sought to expose the arbitrariness of the kahal to the Russian government. In some cases, communal elders had the most threatening informers murdered (such as the Ushitsa case, 1836)

The zoning rule was suspended during the Crimean war, when conscription became annual. During this period the kahal leaders would employ informers and kidnappers (Russian: "ловчики", lovchiki, Yiddish: khappers), as many potential conscripts preferred to run away rather than voluntarily submit. In the case of unfulfilled quotas, younger boys of eight and even younger were frequently taken.

Yosef Yitzchok Schneerson wrote in 1949 that his great grandfather Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn organized a committee with three divisions: one to assist communities in lowering their quotas of conscripts; one, called Chevre T'chiyas Hameisim ("Resurrection Society"), to ransom conscripted children; and one to send men to the assembly points for Jewish contingents, to comfort the children and encourage them to remain loyal to Judaism. This work entailed heavy expenses and the danger of charges of sedition.^{[7][unreliable source?]} Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern wrote in 2003 that no other source corroborates the existence of such an organisation,^[8] and that the Schneerson book is not trustworthy as a source^{[9][unreliable source?]}

Training and pressures to convert

Herzl Yankl Tsam one of only eight Jewish officers in the Russian army in the 19th century. Drafted as a 17-year-old Cantonist, he became an officer in 1873. He was not allowed any promotions beyond captain until his retirement after 41 years of service, when he was given rank and pension of a colonel. In spite of pressures, he never converted.^[10][11]

All cantonists were institutionally underfed, and encouraged to steal food from the local population, in emulation of the Spartan character building. On one occasion in 1856 a Jewish cantonist Khodulevich managed to steal the Tsar's watch during military games at Uman. Not only was he not punished, but he was given a reward of 25 roubles for his prowess.

The boys in Cantonist schools were given extensive training in Russian grammar (and sometimes literature), and mathematics, in particular geometry necessary in naval and artillery service. Those who showed aptitude for music were trained in singing and instrumental music, as the Imperial Army had a large demand for military wind bands and choirs. Some cavalry regiments maintained equestrian bands of torban players, and cantonist schools supplied these as well. Some cantonist schools also prepared firearms mechanics, veterinarians for cavalry, and administrators ("auditors").

The official policy was to encourage their conversion to the state religion of Orthodox Christianity and Jewish boys were coerced to baptism. As kosher food was unavailable, they were faced with the choice of either abandoning Jewish dietary laws or starvation. Polish Catholic boys were subject to similar pressure to convert and assimilate as the Russian Empire was hostile to Catholicism and Polish nationalism. Initially conversions were few, but after the escalation of missionary activities in the cantonist schools in 1844 about 1/3 of all Jewish cantonists would have undergone conversion.

In the army

For all cantonists, their 25-year term of service began after they reached the age of 18 and were distributed into the army. The distribution patterns of the 18-year-old cantonists show that Jews were not discriminated against: they demonstrated similar average literacy, physical ability, and training accomplishments and were sent in the same army and navy regiments as Christian graduating cantonists. A comparison between baptized and unbaptized Jewish cantonists indicates relatively insignificant advantages that the former enjoyed over the latter.

Discriminatory regulations however ensured that unconverted Jews were held back in their army promotions. According to Benjamin Nathans,

"... the formal incorporation of Jews into Nicolas I's army was quickly compromised by laws distinguishing Jewish from non-Jewish soldiers. Less than two years after the 1827 decree on conscription, Jews were barred from certain elite units, and beginning in 1832 they were subject to separate, more stringent criteria for promotion, which required that they "distinguish themselves in combat with the enemy."^[12]

Jews who refused to convert were barred from ascending above the rank of "унтер-офицер" i.e. NCO. There were only eight exceptions that were recorded during the 19th century.^{[citation needed]} These restrictions were not lifted until the February Revolution in 1917.

Some Baptized cantonists eventually reached high ranks in the Imperial Army and Navy, among them were generals Grulev, Arnoldi, Zeil, Khanukov; admirals Kaufman, Sapsay, Kefali.

Literary references

The cantonists' fate was sometimes described by Yiddish and Russian literature classics.

Alexander Herzen in his My Past and Thoughts described his somber encounter with Jewish cantonists. While being convoyed to his exile in 1835 at Vyatka, Herzen met a unit of emaciated Jewish cantonists, some 8 years old, who were marched to Kazan. Their (sympathetic) officer complained that a third had already died.^[13]

Nikolai Leskov described underage Jewish cantonists in his 1863 story The Musk-Ox (Ovtsebyk).

Abolition and results of cantonist policy

The Cantonist policy was abolished by Tsar Alexander II's decree on the 26th of August 1856, in the aftermath of the Russian defeat in the Crimean war, which made evident the dire necessity for the modernisation of the Russian military forces. All unconverted cantonists and recruits under the age of 20 were returned to their families. The underage converted cantonists were given to their godparents. However the implementation of the abolition took nearly 3 years.

It is estimated that between 30,000 to 70,000 Jewish boys served as cantonists, their numbers were disproportionately high in relation to the total number of cantonists. Jewish boys comprised about 20% of cantonists at the schools in Riga and Vitebsk, and as much as 50% at Kazan and Kiev schools. A general estimate for the years 1840–1850 seems to have been about 15%. In general Jews comprised a disproportionate number of recruits (ten for every thousand of the male population,^[14] the number was tripled during the Crimean War (1853-1856).

After the 25-year conscription term, former cantonists were allowed to live and own land anywhere outside the Pale of Settlement. The earliest Jewish communities in Finland were Jewish cantonists who had completed their service. The rate of conversion was generally high, as was eventual intermarriage. Most never returned to their homes.^{[citation needed]}

See also

• Dazdie tax
• Jizya tax
• Useful Jew
• Leibzoll tax
• Pale of Settlement
• More Judaico
• Devşirme system
• Janissary
• Tallage

Statistics

Jewish cantonist recruits, 1843–1854^[5]

• 1843-1,490
• 1844-1,428
• 1845-1,476
• 1846-1,332
• 1847-1,527
• 1848-2,265
• 1849-2,612
• 1850-2,445
• 1851-3,674
• 1852-3,351
• 1853-3,904
• 1854-3,611

Notes

References

• 2008 YIVO encyclopedia http://www.yivoinstitute.org/downloads/Military_Service.pdf
• Simon Dubnow, The Newest History of the Jewish People, 1789-1914 Vol. 2 (Russian ed. ISBN 5-93273-105-2) pp. 141-149, 306-308
• CANTONISTS, by Herman Rosenthal at Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901-1906
• Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish encounter with late imperial Russia (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 2002). pp. 26-38
• Yohanan Petrovsky-Stern, Drafted into Modernity: Jews in the Russian Army (1827-1917) (Stanford University Press, to be published in 2007-8)
• Larry Domnitch, The Cantonists: The Jewish Children's Army of the Tsar (Devora Publishing, 2004). ISBN 1930143850

External links

• Life in the Pale of Settlement. Cantonists (Beyond the Pale exhibition)
• Military conscription in 19th century Russia by Dan Leeson (JewishGen)
• The Cantonists (Jewish History on the Web)
• (Russian) Кантонистские школы
• (Russian) Кантонисты
• (Russian) Былое и думы. Часть вторая (Alexander Herzen, My Past and Thoughts, Part Two)
• (Russian) Э. Шкурко. Еврейские мальчики в солдатских шинелях, или «жизнь за царя». (E. Shkurko. Jewish Boys in the Army Overcoats, or "Life for the Tsar")
• (Russian) В. В. Энгель. Курс лекций по истории евреев в России, тема 6: «Политика самодержавия в отношении евреев во второй четверти XIX века». (V.V.Engel. Lectures on the history of Jews in Russia. Part 6: Tsarist Politics Concerning the Jews in the Second Quarter of the 19th century)
• (Russian) Феликс Кандель Очерки времен и событий. Очерк седьмой (Felix Kandel. Jewish history. Essay 7) (chassidus.ru)