Christian views about women

 

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Christian views (attitudes and beliefs) about women vary considerably today as they have throughout the last two millennia, evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived. For much of Christian history, the role of women in the life of the church both local and universal has been downplayed, overlooked, or simply denied.^[1]

There are differing interpretations of biblical text, differing traditions of various churches and differing cultures in which these churches exist. Some groups express an official view of gender expectations within their congregations and within secular society, while others do not.

The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as prescribing separate gender roles, with women often being excluded from church leadership. For the first 19 or 20 centuries after the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ (according to Christian belief), institutionalized Christianity was very unfavorable to women in pastoral, exegetical or leadership positions. A gender-based hierarchy, claimed by Complementarians to be biblical, has been constructed to place woman under the man's authority and protection — in the church, in marriage, and in secular society.

Only since the 1970s have more diverse views emerged. Today they are known as the Christian Egalitarian and Complementarian views of women and men:

• Christian Egalitarians' interpretation of Scripture bring them to the conclusion that the manner and teachings of Jesus, affirmed by the Apostle Paul, abolished gender-specific roles in both the church and in marriage.

There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus (Galatians 3:28).

Christian Egalitarians interpret the preceding verse as expressing the overarching teaching of the New Testament – that all are "one in Christ," that a Christian distinctive is that there are no longer any distinctions of race, national origin, slavery, or gender.

• Complementarian Christian views, also known as Traditional or Hierarchical views, interpret Galatians 3:28 to refer only to equal availability of all to salvation and union within the "mystical" body of Christ. Their understanding is that both Old and New Testaments prescribe a male-priority based hierarchy and gender roles in the church, in marriage, and in secular society. These prescribed gender roles only recently have come to be modified by some Complementarians as being "different but equal." Complementarians now describe men and women as having "complementary non-overlapping" roles in the church and home.

History

Christianity emerged from Judaism,^[2] a patriarchal religion.

The creation of Adam and Eve is narrated from somewhat different perspectives in Genesis 1:26-27 and Genesis 2:24. The Genesis 1 narration declares the purpose of God, antedating the creation of the sexes.^[3] It has been called the "non-subordinating" view of woman.^[4] God gave the human pair joint responsibility and "rulership" over his creation.

Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground." So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.

– Genesis 1:26-27

Gen. 5:1-2 reaffirms that perspective and has been described as interpretative of that decree of God's initial purpose.^[3]

When God created man, he made him in the likeness of God. He created them male and female and blessed them. And when they were created, he called them "man" [Heb. Adam].

– Genesis 5:1-2

The Genesis 2 narrative has been called the "subordinating view" of woman for two reasons: man is created first, and woman is created out of man.^[4]

...But for Adam (or the man) no suitable helper was found. So the LORD God caused the man to fall into a deep sleep; and while he was sleeping, he took one of the man's ribs (or "took part of the man's side") and closed up the place with flesh. Then the LORD God made a woman from the rib (or "took part of the man's side") he had taken out of the man, and he brought her to the man. The man said, "This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called 'woman,' for she was taken out of man." For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh.

– Genesis 2:20b-24, NIV

"...for Adam there was not found an help meet for him" KJV."no suitable helper [ēzer] was found." Woman for centuries has been instructed to be a "helpmeet" for man. However, any text search of both Old and New Testaments (every translation) will demonstrate that the noun "helpmeet" does not appear anywhere in the Bible. It has become a distorted contraction of the two KJV words, the noun "help" and the adverb "meet," the latter being Shakespearian English for "corresponding to" or "suitable," a phenomenon that has been corrected in all later translations.Eve's weakness has sometimes been blamed for causing Adam's fall, and thus for humanity's fall into original sin. This claim was frequently made during the Middle Ages. In addition, those who argue that Judaism is founded upon patriarchal principles point out that religious and governmental authority within Jewish cultures has usually been restricted to the male gender.

However, even in the Jewish Scriptures there are countercurrents to this patriarchal emphasis. "And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness." Subsequent to God making Adam in his image he made Eve (Genesis 1:26).

The Old Testament presents strong female role models, like the Judge Deborah, Judith and Esther, who were depicted as saving the Hebrew people from disaster. In the book of Proverbs, the divine attribute of Holy Wisdom is presented as female.

Women's roles in the early Christian Church

From the beginning of the early Christian church women were important members of the movement. The gospels of the New Testament, written toward the last quarter of the first century CE, often mention Jesus speaking to women publicly and openly against the social norms of the time. The New Testament Gospels acknowledge that women were among Jesus' earliest followers. Jewish women disciples, including Mary Magdalene, Joanna, and Susanna, had accompanied Jesus during his ministry and supported him out of their private means (Luke 8:1-3).^[1]

When Jesus was arrested, women remained firm, even when his male disciples are said to have fled, and the women disciples accompanied him to the foot of the cross. It was women who were reported as the first witnesses to the resurrection, chief among them again Mary Magdalene. Although the details of these gospel stories may be questioned, in general they reflect the prominent historical roles women played in Jesus' ministry as disciples.^[1]

The gospels state that he reached out to the marginalized in his society. As time went on, groups of Christians organized within the homes of believers. Those who could offer their home for meetings were considered important within the movement and assumed leadership roles.^[5]

By the time Paul began his missionary movement, women were important agents within the different cities. The Pauline letters mention women such as Chloe, Priscilla (Prisca), Euodia and Syntyche as well as Phoebe.

Chloe appears to be the head of a household of an extended family.(1 Cor. 1:11) Priscilla is mentioned seven times in the Bible, as a missionary partner with the Apostle Paul and her husband Aquila. Out of seven times Priscilla and Aquila are mentioned as a couple, her name appears before Aquila's five times.

Phoebe (also spelled "Phebe") is another woman mentioned in Romans 16:1-2. He attaches to her four titles or attributes: diakonos meaning a deacon (lit. "servant"), sister, saint and prostatis ^{[6] [7]}

Outside of written religious sources there is also objective evidence to support women's prominent status and roles within the early Christian church. A second century letter of a Roman governor, Pliny the Younger, to Roman emperor Trajan, demonstrates that female servants were leaders in a church in Bythnia. Pliny wrote the letter, dated 112 C.E., asking for advice on how he should handle a situation where Christians were said to have been stirring up trouble. He said he captured and tortured two female maidservants called deaconesses. These women must have been considered important church leaders since the term was similarly applied to Phoebe in the Pauline letters.^[8]

Art has also been an important objective source showing women in leadership roles. The first or early second century fresco called Fractio Panis depicts a Eucharist ceremony. All the participants, including the main person who is performing the ceremony, are women.^[9] A mosaic found in a Roman basilica portrays Mary, two saints and a veiled woman. An inscription states that the veiled woman is Theodora Epicopa which means Bishop Theodora, Epicopa being the Latin feminine term for bishop. On a Greek island called Thera, a commemorative inscription has been discovered on a burial site. It named Epiktas, a female name, as a priest.^[10]

Jesus' interactions with women

This section presents some of the New Testament records of Jesus' interactions with women.^[11] According to New Testament scholar Dr. Frank Stagg and classicist Evelyn Stagg, the synoptic Gospels of the canonical New Testament^[12] contain a relatively high number of references to women. The Staggs find no recorded instance where Jesus disgraces, belittles, reproaches, or stereotypes a woman. These writers claim that examples of the manner of Jesus are instructive for inferring his attitudes toward women and show repeatedly how he liberated and affirmed women.^[13]

Jesus and his mother

Jesus in the Temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:41–52). The canonical Gospels offer only one story about Jesus as a boy — Luke's story about the boy Jesus in the Jerusalem Temple. According to Luke, his parents, Joseph and Mary, took the 12-year-old Jesus to Jerusalem on their annual pilgrimage to the Passover. Mary and Joseph started their journey home without Jesus, thinking he was somewhere in the caravan with kinsmen or acquaintances. When his parents found him three days later, Mary said, "Son, why have you treated us like this? Your father and I have been anxiously searching for you." The boy Jesus respectfully but firmly reminded her of a higher claim he must answer: "Didn't you know I had to be about my Father's business?"^[13] (pp. 103–104, 224) It is noteworthy that in obedience to his parents Jesus left and was subject to them.

The wedding at Cana of Galilee (John 2:1–11). Mary told Jesus the wine was in short supply. Today his reply may seem curt: "Woman, what have I to do with you? My hour is not yet come" (John 2:4).

Neither here nor elsewhere does Jesus renounce the mother-son relationship as such, but here, as in Luke 2:49, he declares his vocational (ministerial) independence of his mother. He has an "hour" to meet, and Mary, though his mother, can neither hasten nor hinder its coming.^[13] (pp. 103–104, 236)

Most scholars believe that in Jesus' reply to his mother there was no disrespect. According to Matthew Henry's Commentary, he used the same word when speaking to Mary with affection from the cross.^[14]

Scholar Lyn M. Bechtel disagrees with this reading. She writes that the use of the word "woman" in reference to Jesus' mother is "startling. Although it would not be improper or disrespectful to address an ordinary woman in this way (as he often does: see John 4:21, John 8:10, John 20:13-15), it is inappropriate to call his mother 'woman'" (Bechtel 1997, p. 249). Bechtel further argues that this is a device Jesus uses to distance himself from Judaism.

However, Bishop William Temple suggests there is no English phrase that represents the original "Woman, leave me to myself." "In the Greek it is perfectly respectful and can even be tender — as in John 19:27…. We have no corresponding term; 'lady' is precious, and 'madam' is formal. So we must translate simply and let the context give the tone."^[15]

Mary Magdalene

Mary Magdalene (also called Miriam of Magdala) is among the women depicted in the New Testament who accompanied Jesus and his twelve apostles, and who also helped to support the men financially (Luke 8:2–3). According to Mark 15:40, Matthew 27:56, John 19:25, and Luke 23:49, she was one of the women who remained at Jesus' crucifixion. The New Testament says she saw Jesus laid in a tomb. Mark 16:9 says that after his resurrection, Jesus appeared first to Mary Magdalene. The New Testament also says that Jesus had cast seven demons out of her.

Asbury Theological Seminary Bible scholar Ben Witherington III confirms the New Testament account of Mary Magdalene as historical: "Mary was an important early disciple and witness for Jesus."^[16] He continues, "There is absolutely no early historical evidence that Miriam's relationship with Jesus was anything other than that of a disciple to her Master teacher."

Jeffrey Kripal, Chair of Rice University's Department of Religious Studies, writes that Christian Gnostic texts put Mary Magdalene in a central position of authority, but these texts were excluded from orthodox Biblical canons. Kripal describes Mary Magdalene as a tragic figure who maintained an important role later diminished by the male church leadership (Kripal 2007, p. 51). Kripal explains that gnostic texts suggest an intimate, possibly sexual relationship between Jesus and Mary Magdalene, but that Jesus' sexuality is absolutely ambiguous based on the available evidence: "The historical sources are simply too contradictory and simultaneously too silent on the matter" (Kripal 2007, p. 50).

According to Kripal, the gnostic texts "consistently [present] Mary as an inspired visionary, as a potent spiritual guide, as Jesus's intimate companion, even as the interpreter of his teaching" (Kripal 2007, p. 52).

Kripal writes that theologies of the European Middle Ages likely invented the notion of a sexual relationship between Mary Magdalene and Jesus: "The medieval Catharists and Albigensians, for example, held that Mary was Jesus's concubine. The great Protestant reformer Martin Luther also assumed a sexual relationship between the two, perhaps to give some historical precedent for his own dramatic rejection of Catholic celibacy" (Kripal 2007, p. 52).

A woman who touched Jesus' garment

Jesus practiced the ministry of touch, sometimes touching the "untouchables" and letting them touch him. Among the things considered defiling (disqualifying one for the rituals of religion) was an issue of blood, especially menstruation or hemorrhage. One such had been plagued with a flow of blood for 12 years, no one having been able to heal her. She found the courage in a crowd to force her way up to Jesus, approaching him from behind so as to remain inconspicuous, and simply touching his garment (Mark 5:27). When she touched Jesus' garment, the flows of blood stopped. Jesus turned and asked who touched him. The disciples tried to brush aside the question, protesting that in such a crowd no individual could be singled out. Jesus pressed his inquiry and the noble woman identified herself and declared to the crowd the blessing that had come to her. Jesus treated her not only as having worth but as doing a responsible thing. He did not rebuke her for what the cultic code of holiness would have considered as having defiled him. Rather, he relieved her of any sense of guilt for her seemingly rash act and said, "Daughter, your faith has saved you. Go in peace!" (Mark 5:34).

Fontaine writes, "The 'chutzpah' shown by the woman who bled for 12 years as she wrests her salvation from the healer's cloak is as much a measure of her desperation as it is a testimony to her faith" (Fontaine 1996, p. 291). She writes that "the Bible views women as a group of people who are fulfilled, legitimated, given full membership into their community, and cared for in old age by their children" (Fontaine 1996, p. 290), and that barren women risked ostracism from their communities. Fontaine notes that when disabled people are healed, the act "emphasizes primarily the remarkable compassion of the one doing the good deed, not the deserving nature or dignity of the recipient" ((Fontaine 1996, p. 290). She writes that they "serve as marvelous plot devices that show off the power of God or the anointed one" (Fontaine 1996, p. 294).

Jesus and the woman taken in adultery^[13]

The story appearing in most Bibles as John 7:53–8:11 Jesus was teaching in the Temple in Jerusalem. Some scribes and Pharisees interrupted his teaching as they brought in a woman who had been taken in the very act of adultery. They stood her before him, declared the charge, reminded him of Moses' command that such women be stoned, and then asked, "What do you say?" After a time of silence, Jesus stooped down and wrote with his finger on the ground. The text includes no hint of what he wrote. The woman's accusers were after Jesus, not just her. She to them was a worthless object to be used to trap Jesus. Finally, Jesus stood up and said to the accusers, "Let the one among you who is without sin cast the first stone." He stooped down once more and again wrote on the ground. In his answer Jesus did not condone adultery. He compelled her accusers to judge themselves and find themselves guilty — of this sin and/or others. No one could pass the test, and they slipped out one by one, beginning with the eldest.

When Jesus and the woman were finally alone, he asked her a simple question, "Woman, where are they? Did no one condemn you?" She simply replied, "No one, Lord." His final word to the woman was one of affirmation and commission: "Neither do I condemn you. Go, and from now on sin no more." While acknowledging that she had sinned, he turned her in a new direction with real encouragement. Jesus rejected the double standard for women and men and turned the judgment upon the male accusers. His manner with the sinful woman was such that she found herself challenged to a new self understanding and a new life.

The woman at the well in Samaria^[13]

The long account about Jesus and a woman of Samaria, found in John 4:1–4 is highly significant for understanding Jesus in several relationships: Samaritans, women, and sinners. By talking openly with this woman Jesus crossed a number of barriers which normally would have separated a Jewish teacher from such a person as this woman of Samaria. Jesus did three things that were highly unconventional and astonishing for his cultural-religious situation:

1. He as a man discussed theology openly with a woman.
2. He as a Jew asked to drink from the ritually unclean bucket of a Samaritan.
3. He did not avoid her, even though he knew her marital record of having had five former husbands and now living with a man who was not her husband.

The disciples showed their astonishment upon their return to the well: "They were marveling that he was talking with a woman" (John 4:27). A man in the Jewish world did not normally talk with a woman in public, not even with his own wife. For a rabbi to discuss theology with a woman was even more unconventional. Jesus did not defer to a woman simply because she was a woman. He did not hesitate to ask of the woman that she let him drink from her vessel, but he also did not hesitate to offer her a drink of another kind from a Jewish "bucket" as he said to her, "Salvation is of the Jews" (John 4:22). Salvation was coming to the Samaritan woman from the Jews. Although she was a Samaritan, she needed to be able to drink from a Jewish "vessel" (of salvation) and Jesus no more sanctioned Samaritan prejudice against Jew than Jewish prejudice against Samaritan.

The key to Jesus' stance is found in his perceiving persons as persons. He saw the stranger at the well as someone who first and foremost was a person — not primarily a Samaritan, a woman, or a sinner. This evangelized woman became an evangelist. She introduced her community to "a man" whom they came to acclaim as "the Savior of the world" (John 4:42). Jesus liberated this woman and awakened her to a new life in which not only did she receive but also gave. The Bible says she brought "many Samaritans" to faith in Christ (v. 39). If the men in John 1 were the first "soul winners," this woman was the first "evangelist" in John's gospel.

Mary and Martha^[13]

Luke and John show that Jesus had a close relationship with the sisters Mary and Martha. They are featured in three major stories:

1. A tension between the two sisters over roles (Luke 10:38–42));
2. Grief at the death of their brother Lazarus, followed by his being raised (John 11:1–44); and
3. The anointing of Jesus by Mary (explicitly in John 12:1–8); presumably in Mark 14:3–9; Matthew 26:6–13).

Tension over roles^[13]

Only Luke relates the story of tension between Martha and Mary on the occasion of the visit of Jesus to their home (Luke 10:38–42)). While Martha prepared the meal, Mary sat at the feet of Jesus and "she was hearing his word" (Luke 10:39). Martha became distracted and frustrated over having to serve the meal without any help from her sister. Finally she openly shared her feelings, stood over Jesus who was either seated or reclining, and complained: "She came to him and asked, "Lord, don't you care that my sister has left me to do the work by myself? Tell her to help me!" Jesus gently rebuked Martha for being so distracted and troubled over many things, when only one thing was necessary. He then affirmed Mary and her choice of "the good part" which would not be taken from her.

Mary's choice was not a conventional one for Jewish women. She sat at the feet of Jesus and was listening to his teaching and religious instruction. Jewish women were not permitted to touch the Scriptures; they were not taught the Torah itself, although they were instructed in accordance with it for the proper regulation of their lives. A rabbi did not instruct a woman in the Torah. Not only did Mary choose the "good part," but Jesus related to her in a teacher-discipleship relationship. He admitted her into "the study" and commended her for her choice. In the tradition of that day, women were excluded from the altar-oriented priestly ministry, and the exclusion encroached upon the Word-oriented ministry for women. Jesus reopened the Word-ministry for woman. Mary was at least one of his students in theology.

Jesus vindicated Mary's rights to be her own person — to be Mary and not Martha. He showed his approval of a woman's right to opt for the study and not be compelled to be in the kitchen. Jesus established his own priorities in declaring, "Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word proceeding out through the mouth of God (Matthew 4:4)). Martha needed to be reminded of the priority of Word over bread. Luke's account of Jesus at the home of Mary and Martha puts Jesus solidly on the side of the recognition of the full personhood of woman, with the right to options for her own life. By socializing with both sisters and in defending Mary's right to a role then commonly denied to Jewish women, Jesus was following his far-reaching principle of human liberation.

The grieving sisters^[13]

John 11:1–44 is about the raising of Lazarus from four days in the tomb. The central figure, however, is Jesus, identified as "the resurrection and the life." When the brother of Mary and Martha became ill, they sent for Jesus. For some undisclosed reason, Jesus did not arrive until four days after Lazarus died. The grieving sisters, Martha first and then Mary, met Jesus. Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead and then proclaimed himself as "the resurrection and the life." Martha gently reproached Jesus, "Lord, had you been here, my brother would not have died." She hastened to express full confidence that God would grant whatever Jesus asked him to grant. Martha reflected a spiritual understanding beyond that required for preparing and serving a meal (John 11:21–27). Apparently, Martha and not just Mary had benefited from the study.

Mary stayed in the house until Jesus called for her. When Martha went to get her, Mary came quickly fell at Jesus' feet (Mary is at the feet of Jesus in every appearance recorded in John's gospel). She repeated the words Martha already had used: "Lord, had you been here my brother would not have died." Jesus was deeply moved upon seeing Mary and her friends weeping. They invited Jesus to come and see the tomb where Lazarus had been laid. Jesus burst into tears. The Jews standing by understood this as reflecting Jesus is love for Lazarus, "see how he loved him" (v. 36). The foursome of Jesus, Mary, Lazarus, and Martha had a close relationship as persons, with neither denial of gender differences nor preoccupation with it. Here were persons of both genders whose mutual respect, friendship and love carried them through experiences of tension, grief, enjoy. Apparently Jesus was secure enough to develop such a relationship with two sisters and their brother without fear for his reputation. When necessary, he could oppose them without fear of chauvinism. Jesus had much to do with the liberation and growth of Martha and Mary.

The anointing at Bethany^[13]

Only John identifies Mary with the anointing in Bethany. The woman remains unnamed in Mark and Matthew ((Matthew 26:6–13; Mark 14:1–3; John 12:1–3)). Jesus is quoted in Matthew as assuring that the story of a woman's sacrificial love and devotion to him will have a place in the gospel wherever preached. Mary probably anticipated Jesus' death, but that is not certain. At least her beautiful deed gave Jesus needed support as he approached his awaited hour. Each of the two sisters Mary and Martha had their own way of ministering to Jesus: Martha, perhaps being more practical, served him a meal; Mary lavishly anointed him.

Jesus on family relationships

Jesus ate with a Pharisee leader one evening, where he invited the gathered guests to follow him (Matthew 12:46). The guests gave reasons why they could not follow him, including marriage and recent financial acquisitions (Luke 14:18–20). Jesus responded, "If anyone comes to me and does not hate father and mother, wife and children, brothers and sisters — yes, even life itself — such a person cannot be my disciple" (Luke 14:26).

Various expositors suggest that "hate" is an example of comparative hyperbolic biblical language, prominent in some Eastern cultures even today, to imply "love less than you give me,"^[17] "compared to Christ,"^[18] the Semitic idea of "lower preference,"a call to count the cost of following Jesus.^[19]

When Jesus was told that his mother and brothers waited for him outside and wanted to speak to him, Jesus created a novel definition of family. He said to the people who were gathered to hear him speak, "Who is my mother? and who are my brethren? And he stretched forth his hand toward his disciples, and said, 'Behold my mother and my brethren! For whosoever shall do the will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother'" (Matthew 12:48–50).

Biblical interpretations supporting equality for men and women

The following Scriptural references are interpreted by some to allow greater equality between men and women:

• Acts 2:17–18 says, "In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy."
• "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." Galatians 3:28.
• "The husband should give to his wife her conjugal rights, and likewise the wife to her husband. For the wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does; likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does." 1 Corinthians 7:3–5.
• Paul is accompanied by house-church leaders Priscilla and Aquila. Priscilla, a female, is a prominent figure in Paul's ministry.
• In Romans 16:1–2, Phoebe is commended as a deacon — not a deaconess. Paul's word for women's "ministering" is widely used in the New Testament. Its noun cognate, diakonos, is variously translated "minister," "servant," and "deacon" (the latter in Romans 16:1 for Phoebe and in the pastoral letters). Paul uses the same word for himself. Paul writes this as a recommendation for Phoebe. ^[20]
• A disciple named Junia is mentioned as being of note among the apostles (Romans 16:7). While Junia's gender is not perfectly clear in the Greek, there is evidence that she was a woman. The writings of the early church fathers indicate that the female identity of Junias was accepted without objection for the first twelve centuries of the church. One of the earliest Christian commentators on the subject, John Chrysostom (349–407) wrote: "How great the wisdom of this woman must have been that she was even deemed worthy of the title of apostle." Without exception, the church fathers in late antiquity identified Andronicus' partner in Rom 16:7 as a woman, as did a 9th century church record which recorded iounia with an acute accent, meaning feminine. When later medieval copyists of Romans 16:7 could not imagine a woman being an apostle, they wrote the masculine name "Junias."^[21]

• Jesus' stories often centered on deeds of compassion and generosity. Many of his parables involved women. An example is the Parable of the widow's mite, in which a relatively tiny gift from an impoverished woman is regarded by Christ as being a generous gift, equal with a lavish gift from a rich man, because the money was needed more by the poor woman — the rich man could easily afford to be generous.

Old and New Testaments Scriptures that refer to women in ministry roles:

• Exodus 15:20–21 and Micah 6:4; (Miriam is sent along with Moses and Aaron).
• Judges 4 and 5 (Deborah was both a prophetess and judge of Israel).
• 2 Kings 22:14–20 (Huldah was a prophetess).
• Isaiah 8:3 (Isaiah's wife is referred to as a prophetess).
• Matthew 28, Mark 16, John 20 (Women were first to testify of Jesus' resurrection).
• Luke 2:36–38 (Anna the prophetess gave thanks and spoke of Jesus in the temple).
• Acts 2:16–18 (Promises that "your daughters will prophesy" Note: 1 Corinthians 14:3–4 says that he who prophesies does so to men and edifies the church).
• Acts 21:8–9 (Philip's four daughters prophesied).
• Romans 16:1–2 (Paul commends Phoebe as a "servant" which is the Greek word diakonos (Strong's reference number G1249) which is also translated as "deacon" in 1 Timothy 3:8. Apostle Paul refers to himself with the same Greek word in 1 Corinthians 3:5 (translated as "minister").
• Romans 16:3–4 (Paul refers to Priscilla and Aquila, a husband and wife team, as helpers in Christ. In Acts 18:24–26, Aquila and Priscilla taught and corrected Apollos so that he could understand the gospel more accurately).
• Romans 16:12 (Tryphena, Tryphosa, and Persis labored in the Lord).
• Philippians 4:3 (Women labored with Paul in the Gospel).

Biblical interpretations supporting unequal roles for women and men

The following Scriptural references are interpreted by some to support unequal roles for women and men and women at home and in the church:

• The Bible endorses different functions/roles between men and women in the home. (1 Peter 3:1–6; Eph 5:22, 25; Titus 2:4; Colossians 3:18–19). In general, men are exhorted to lead with love and consideration, while women are told to submit with loving reverence.
• Both Paul and Peter refer to the Old Testament to justify the submission of woman to man; the creation of Eve after Adam (1 Corinthians 11:8–9) and the transgression of Eve before Adam (1 Timothy 2:12).
• 1 Corinthians 14:34 states that women must not speak/preach in church "as also says the law" (KJV), 1 Corinthians 14:35 calls it "a shame for women to speak in the church," and that women should be taught only by their husbands.

• Colossians 3:18–23 in particular is addressed directly to specific groups: women are to submit to the leadership of their husband, men to love their wives and not to treat them with harshness, children to respect their parents, fathers not to frustrate their children, and slaves to obey their masters.
• 3:1–6%20;&version=1 Peter 3:1-6; 1Peter 3:1–6 justifies submission on the grounds that "Sara obeyed Abraham, calling him lord" (KJV).
• "But I have this against you, that you tolerate the woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess and she teaches and leads My bond-servants astray so that they commit acts of immorality and eat things sacrificed to idols" Revelations 2:20 (NASB).

Complementarians argue that Paul principles that still apply to women in a formal church setting:

• Paul addresses women in formal church settings to keep silent based on Torah law regarding female subjugation to men (1 Corinthians 14:34-35). However, there is debate whether the passage speaks directly to today's society.^[22]<>^[23]
• Women are told to learn in silence with attitudes of subjugation in church (1 Timothy 2:12–15). The word Paul uses for "silence" (hesuchia) is not a word that implies total silence but rather refers to a quietness and an attitude that is appropriate for learning. As rabbinical students sit at the feet of the rabbi to learn, so women are to do the same with the teachers in Ephesus (p. 90).^[24]
• Women are restricted from teaching and "usurping" authority over men in formal church settings (1 Timothy 2:12–15). In the phrase "…to have authority over men," Paul does not use the traditional word for "authority" (exousia), but rather a word that is used only once in the New Testament, "authentein." (see Strongs # 831)
• Women seem not to be considered in the criteria for selecting bishops and deacons (Titus 1:5, 1 Timothy 3:1–12, and 1 Timothy 3:14-15).
• The above exhortations concerning women were given to various churches and to traveling evangelists (for example, Timothy and Titus). The recipients of the instructions were told to remain true to these specific teachings (thought by some to be evidence that they were not cultural prescriptions).
• The teachings regarding family order coincided with the Torah and with early church documents and traditions. Some of them were noted by Paul to be the commands of the Lord and traditions among "all the churches of God" (Areas: Corinth, Ephesus, Crete, etc.) ({{Bibleref2|1Cor|11:1–16||1 Corinthians 11:1–16}; 1 Corinthians 14:33–38; 1 Timothy 3:14–15)
• All of Jesus' apostles were male. It is also true that all of them were Jews. After Jesus' ascension, the apostles seem not to have considered female or Gentile candidates when choosing a replacement for Judas, or when choosing seven leaders (Luke 6:13; Acts 1:14–26; Acts 6:3). Jesus had several women followers, notably Mary Magdalene, but no female apostles.

Current church views of women's roles

In general, the issues have been what the proper role of women is (a) in marriage; (b) in the church; (c) in society at large. Among the denominations, movements, and organizations that express or have previously expressed a view, there are four main views:

1. Full equality of roles and rights:
   • American Baptist Churches USA
   • Assemblies of God
   • Baptist Union of Great Britain
   • Christians for Biblical Equality
   • Church of the Brethren
   • Episcopal Church USA
   • Evangelical Covenant Church
   • Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
   • The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church(LEPC)(GCEPC)in the USA
   • Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland
   • Free Methodist Church
   • Presbyterian Church USA
   • Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) — Quakers have always believed in the legitimacy of women's ministry, with only a few exceptions in the early years. In 1848 at a conference in Seneca Falls, New York, 100 men and women signed a declaration that "all men and women are created equally." Early leaders of the movement were Quaker, including Lucretia Mott.
   • United Church of Canada
   • United Church of Christ
   • United Methodist Church
   • Uniting Church in Australia
   • Many others
2. Full secular equality but restricted ecclesiastical roles and privileges:
   • Eastern Orthodox Church
   • Presbyterian Church in America
   • Orthodox Presbyterian Church
   • Presbyterian Church of Australia
   • Roman Catholic Church
   • Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod
   • Lutheran Church-Wisconsin Synod
   • Many others
3. Restricted roles or rights in both secular and ecclesiastical life:
   • Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood
   • Jehovah's Witnesses
4. Forced restricted roles or rights
   • Christian Reconstructionism
   • Dominion theology
5. Mixed
   • Southern Baptist Convention's official position^[25] is to prohibit females from becoming clergy, and to insist that a wife "graciously submit" to the leadership of her husband. Members of an individual ("local") Southern Baptist church are allowed to vote on matters of business of the church that include the hiring of a pastor. However, many churches that have chosen female clergy as their pastor have been disenfranchised by either local or state Baptist associations.

The above lists are examples and are obviously not exhaustive. It is not always clear which category a church or movement falls into.

The Wesleyan tradition and the Holiness and Pentecostal movements, as well as a growing number of contemporary Charismatic churches which draw from them, have increasingly accepted women as leaders on an equal footing with men.

Roman Catholicism, addresses the issue from the highest levels, including the Papal Office. For instance, Pope John Paul II has addressed this issue in his 1995 "Letter to Women", his 1996 "Address on Promoting the Well-Being of Women", and the 1988 Apostolic Letter "On the Dignity and Vocation of Women", for examples.

Other notes: There is a controversial passage in 1 Corinthians 11:1-16 .

However, in Scripture, one can find that outside contexts of formality, women operate in many gifts of the Spirit like evangelizing, prophesying, serving, praying, teaching, laboring in ministry, preaching (John 4:28–30; 1 Cor 11:1–16; Matt 27:55; Acts 1:14; Acts 18:26; Phil 4:3; Luke 2:36–38).

References and notes

• Bechtel, Lyn M. (1996), "A Symbolic Level of Meaning: John 2.1-11 (The Marriage in Cana)", written at Sheffield, U.K., in Athalya Brenner, A Feminist Companion to The Hebrew Bible in the New Testament (1st ed.), Sheffield Academic Press

• Fontaine, Carole R. (1996), "Disabilities and Illness in the Bible: A Feminist Perspective", written at Sheffield, U.K., in Athalya Brenner, A Feminist Companion to The Hebrew Bible in the New Testament (1st ed.), Sheffield Academic Press

• Kripal, Jeffrey John. (2007), written at Chicago, The Serpent's Gift: Gnostic Reflections on the Study of Religion, The University of Chicago Press

Catholic Church references

• "Declaration Inter Insigniores on the question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood." Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, October 15, 1976.
• Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood)." Pope John Paul II, May 22, 1994.
• "Apostolic Letter Mulieris Dignitatem (On the Dignity of Women)." Pope John Paul II, August 15, 1988.
• Catechism of the Catholic Church. Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus' coming. She is one of the few of Jesus' followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints.

Literature on the history of women in the early Christian Church

• Torjesen, Karen Jo. When Women were Priests: Women's Leadership in the Early Church & The Scandal of their Subordination in the Rise of Christianity. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publisher, 1995.
• Wiley,Tatha. Paul and the Gentile Women: Reframing Galatians New York: Continuum, 2005.
• MacDonald, Margaret. "Reading Real Women Through Undisputed Letters of Paul." In Women and Christian Origins edited by Ross Sheppard Kraemer and Mary Rose D'Angelo. Oxford: University Press, 1999.
• Witherington, Ben III. Women in the Earliest Churches. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

See also

• Christian egalitarianism
• Christian feminism
• Christians for Biblical Equality an egalitarian organization
• Complementarianism
• Female disciples of Jesus
• Katharine Bushnell Pioneer Christian feminist
• Old Testament views on women
• Quaker views of women
• Women as theological figures

External links

• Christians for Biblical Equality, an egalitarian organization
• The Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, a complementarian organization
• "The Ministry of Women" — by William MacDonald

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