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Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses

 
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Faithful and Discreet Slave
History
Bible Student movement
Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
Beliefs & Practices
Doctrines
God's name · Eschatology · Blood · Disfellowshipping
Literature
The Watchtower · Awake!
New World Translation
Controversies
Related people
Watch Tower Presidents
W.H. Conley · C.T. Russell · J.F. Rutherford · N.H. Knorr · F.W. Franz
M.G. Henschel · D.A. Adams
Formative influences
William Miller · N.H. Barbour · George Storrs
Notable Former Jehovah's Witnesses
Raymond Franz · Olin Moyle
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Jehovah's Witnesses have experienced controversy in their relationships with mainstream Christianity, governments and former members. The religion has been accused of doctrinal inconsistency and reversals, false predictions, hypocrisy, mistranslation of the Bible, poor treatment of former members, mind control[1] and failure to report cases of sexual abuse to the authorities.

Contents

Biblical controversies

The Watch Tower Society's New World Translation of the Bible has attracted criticism since its publication in 1961. The translation bears no translator's name and is presented as the anonymous work of the "New World Translation Committee". Raymond Franz, a former member of the Governing Body, has claimed that of the four men he says constituted the committee, only one – its principal translator, Fred Franz – had sufficient knowledge of biblical languages to have attempted the project.[2] Frederick Franz had studied Greek for two years and was self-taught in Hebrew.[3]

Criticism of the translation has centered chiefly on two claims. One is that its insertion of the name Jehovah 237 times in the New Testament was done without any evidence that the name existed in the original Greek manuscripts.[4] The other more-commonly cited criticism is that the translation of certain texts is biased towards specific Witness practices and doctrines.[5][6] These include the use of "torture stake" instead of "cross" throughout the New Testament;[5] the rendering of John 1:1, with the insertion of the indefinite article ("a") in its rendering to give "the Word was a god";[5][7] Romans 10:10, which uses the term "public declaration", which may reinforce the imperative to engage in public preaching;[5] John 17:3, which uses the term "taking in knowledge" rather than "know" to suggest that salvation is dependent on ongoing study,[5] and the placement of the comma in Luke 23:43, which affects the timing of the fulfillment of Jesus' promise to the thief at Calvary.[8]

Doctrinal controversies

Some doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses and claims in Watch Tower Society literature have been a target for criticism since the religion's inception in the 19th century. The Society has been accused of making false predictions and issuing self-aggrandizing statements.[9]

Unfulfilled predictions

From the earliest writings of Watch Tower Society founder, Charles Taze Russell, in the mid-1870s, Watch Tower publications have asserted the reliability of their predictions, with emphatic language such as "established truth"[10] and "indisputable".[11] Predictions made in 1892 that Armageddon would take place in October 1914 asserted the date was "definitely marked in Scripture",[12] and Watch Tower editor Charles Taze Russell declared: "We see no reason for changing the figures – nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God's dates, not ours."[13] Predictions about the arrival of Christ's thousand-year reign in 1925 were said to be "correct beyond a doubt",[14] "absolutely and unqualifiedly correct",[15] "indisputable"[16] and bearing "the stamp of approval of Almighty God".[15] Watch Tower publications have occasionally admitted to have "suggested dates that turned out to be incorrect" as a result of their "eagerness for Jesus’ second coming", adding that they had never claimed that the predictions were "the words of Jehovah."[17] The publications have at times simply dismissed their previous statements, instead asserting that members "read into the Watch Tower statements that were never intended",[18] and that the beliefs of members were "based on wrong premises".[19] Other failed predictions are ignored completely. One book, The Finished Mystery (1917), applied events to the years 1918-1925 that had earlier been scheduled for the years before 1914. When some of those events again failed to transpire, a later edition of the book (1926) altered the statements and removed the dates.[20]

Predictions (by date of publication) include:

  • 1877: Christ's kingdom would hold full sway over the earth in 1914; the Jews, as a people, would be restored to God's favour; the "saints" would be carried to heaven.[21]
  • 1891: 1914 would be "the farthest limit of the rule of imperfect men."[22]
  • 1904: "World-wide anarchy" would follow the end of the Gentile Times in 1914.[23]
  • 1916: World War I would terminate in Armageddon and the rapture of the "saints".[24]
  • 1917: In 1918, Christendom would go down as a system to oblivion and be succeeded by revolutionary governments. God would "destroy the churches wholesale and the church members by the millions." Church members would "perish by the sword of war, revolution and anarchy". The dead would lie unburied. In 1920 all earthly governments would disappear, with worldwide anarchy prevailing.[25]
  • 1920: Messiah's kingdom would be established in 1925 and bring worldwide peace. God would begin restoring the earth. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and other faithful patriarchs would be resurrected to perfect human life and be made princes and rulers, the visible representatives of the New Order on earth. Those who showed themselves obedient to God would never die.[26]
  • 1922: The antitypical "jubilee" that would mark God's intervention in earthly affairs in 1925 would take place in "probably the fall" of that year.[27] The chronology was described as "correct beyond a doubt",[28] "absolutely and unqualifiedly correct",[15] bearing "the stamp of approval of Almighty God"[15] and "too sublime to be the result of chance or of human invention".[15]
  • 1924: God's restoration of the Earth would begin "shortly after" October 1, 1925. Jerusalem would be made the world's capital. Resurrected "princes" such as Abel, Noah, Moses and John the Baptist would give instructions to their subjects around the world by radio, and aeroplanes would transport people to and from Jerusalem from all parts of the globe in just "a few hours".[29]
  • 1938: In 1938, Armaggedon was too close for marriage or child bearing.[30]
  • 1941: There were only "months" remaining until Armageddon.[31]
  • 1942: Armageddon was "immediately before us."[32]
  • 1966: It would be 6000 years since man's creation in the fall of 1975 and it would be "appropriate" for Christ's thousand-year reign to begin at that time.[33] Time was "running out, no question about that."[34] The "immediate future" was "certain to be filled with climactic events ... within a few years at most", the final parts of Bible prophecy relating to the "last days" would undergo fulfillment as Christ's reign began.
  • 1968: No one could say "with certainty" that the battle of Armageddon would begin in 1975, but time was "running out rapidly" with "earth-shaking events" soon to take place.[35] In March 1968 there was a "short period of time left", with "only about ninety months left before 6000 years of man's existence on earth is completed".[36]
  • 1969: Human existence would not last long enough for young people to grow old; the world system would end "in a few years". Young Witnesses were encouraged not to bother pursuing tertiary education for this reason.[37]
  • 1974: There was just a "short time remaining before the wicked world's end" and Witnesses were commended for selling their homes and property to "finish out the rest of their days in this old system in the pioneer service". [38]
  • 1984: There were "many indications" that "the end" was closer than the end of the 20th century.[39]
See also: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses

Claims of prophecy and revelation

The Watch Tower Society has been accused of making false claims to act as a prophet in making predictions about the future.[40][41] Its publications have made the explicit claim that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students (the organisation's earlier name) as a prophet,[42][43] including the claim that God has identified Jehovah's Witnesses as his prophet by delivering messages through them that later come true.[44] Members of the religion were encouraged to place unwavering trust in those predictions.[45] It has condemned others for making false predictions about the future, stating that such people were "guilty of false prophesying" after having "predicted an 'end to the world', even announcing a specific date'",[46] but has itself claimed it is not infallibile,[47][48][49] thus absolving itself of responsibility for the consequences of failed predictions.[50]

The Watch Tower Society claims that only Jehovah's Witnesses practise true Christianity[51] and that the religion's Governing Body is the sole "channel" of communication between God and man.[52][53] Doctrinal positions on the Bible are gained by what Witness publications describe as "progressive revelation". The term is undefined in Watchtower literature, but commonly taken to mean the application of reason and study as well as the undefined guidance of the Holy Spirit. The Watchtower has suggested direct, latter-day revelations have also been received.[54] Rutherford spoke of spiritual "lightning flashes in the temple",[55] the Society claims its doctrine of the "great crowd" and "other sheep" were "revealed" to Rutherford in 1935,[56][57] and Witness literature has also described sudden changes in doctrines as "flashes of light" given by God through his holy spirit.[58] A 1930 publication claimed God used "invisible deputies" and "invisible angels" to pass his "messages" to Watchtower.[59][60]

The Watch Tower Society has insisted that the Bible is "an organizational book and belongs to the Christian congregation as an organization, not to individuals" and that "the Bible cannot be properly understood without Jehovah's visible organization in mind".[61] It has also warned that individual interpretation of the Bible is dangerous and foolish.[62] That view has been likened to the decree of the 1546 Roman Catholic Church Council of Trent, which forbade individuals to interpret scripture contrary to the views of the church.[63]

See also: Unfulfilled religious prophecies

Changes of doctrine

History of Eschatological Doctrine
Last Days Begin Christ's Return Christ as King Resurrection of 144,000 Judgment of Religion Great Tribulation
1879–1920 1799 1874 1878 1914, 1915, 1918, 1920
1920–1925 1925
1925–1927 1914 1878 1878 within generation of 1914
1927–1930 1918
1930–1933 1919
1933–1966 1914
1966–1975 1975?
1975–1995 within generation of 1914
1995-present imminent

Although Watch Tower Society literature claims the Society's founder, Charles Taze Russell, was directed by God's holy spirit, through which he received "flashes of light",[64] it has substantially altered doctrines since its inception and abandoned many of Russell's teachings.[65] Many of the changes have involved biblical chronology that had earlier been claimed as beyond question.

  • Date of beginning of Christ's kingdom rule. Russell taught that Jesus had assumed kingly power in April 1878.[66][67] In 1922, Joseph Rutherford altered the date to 1914.[65]
  • Date of resurrection of anointed Christians. After the failure of predictions that Christ's chosen "saints" would be carried away to heaven in 1878,[68] Russell developed the teaching that those "dying in the Lord" from 1878 forward would have an immediate heavenly resurrection.[69] The Watch Tower confirmed the doctrine in 1925,[70] but two years later asserted this date was wrong[71] and that the beginning of the instant resurrection to heaven for faithful Christians was from 1918.[72]
  • Great Pyramid as a "stone witness" of God. Russell wrote in 1910 that, as indicated by Isaiah 19:19,20, God had had the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt built as a testimony to the truth of the Bible and proof of its chronology identifying the "last days".[73][74] In 1928 Rutherford rejected the doctrine and claimed the Pyramid had been built under the direction of Satan.[75]
  • Identity of "faithful and wise servant". Russell initially believed the "faithful and wise servant" of Matthew 24:45 was "every member of this body of Christ ... the whole body individually and collectively".[76] By 1886 he had altered his view and began explaining it was a person, not the Christian church.[77] Russell accepted claims by Bible Students that he was that "servant"[78][79][80] and in 1909 described as his "opponents" those who would apply the term "faithful and wise servant" to "all the members of the church of Christ" rather than to an individual.[81] By 1927 the Watch Tower Society had abandoned Russell's view and was teaching it was "a collective servant".[82]
  • Beginning of the "last days". From the earliest issues of the Watch Tower, Russell promoted the belief that the "last days" had begun in 1799 and would end in 1914.[83] As late as 1921 Watch Tower publications were still claiming the last days had begun in 1799.[84] In 1930 that date was abandoned and 1914 was fixed as the beginning of the last days.
  • Jews' role in God's Kingdom. Russell followed the view of Nelson H. Barbour, who believed that in 1914 Christ's kingdom would take power over all the earth and the Jews, as a people, would be restored to God's favour.[85] In 1889 Russell wrote that with the completion of the "Gentile Times" in 1914, Israel's "blindness" would subside and they would convert to Christianity.[86] The book Life (1929) noted that the return of Jews to Palestine signalled the end was very close, because Jews would "have the favors first and thereafter all others who obey the Lord" under God's restoration of his kingdom.[87] In 1932 that belief was abandoned and from that date the Watch Tower Society taught that Witnesses alone were the Israel of God.[88]
  • Date of Christ's invisible presence. The Watch Tower Society taught for more than 60 years that this began in 1874, insisting in 1922 that the date was "clearly indicated" and had been given the stamp of authority by God "beyond any possibility of erasure"[89] and warning that doubting the date would lead to a "repudiation of God and our Lord Jesus Christ and the blood with which we were bought".[90] In 1943 the society moved the event to 1914.[65][91][92]
  • Identity of the "superior authorities". Russell taught that the "superior authorities" of Romans 13:1, to whom Christians had to show subjection and obedience, were governmental authorities. In 1929 The Watchtower discarded this view, stating categorically the term referred only to God and Christ, and saying the change of doctrine was evidence of "advancing light" of truth shining forth to God's chosen people.[93] A 1952 The Watchtower study stated that the words of Romans 13 "could never have applied to the political powers of Caesar’s world as wrongly claimed by the clergy of Christendom"[94] and a 1960 The Watchtower described the earlier view as a factor that had caused the Bible Student movement to be "unclean" in God's eyes during the 1914-18 period. Two years later, in 1962, The Watchtower reverted to Russell's initial doctrine.[95]
  • Identity and function of the Governing Body. Frequent mentions of the term "Governing Body" began in Watch Tower Society literature in the 1970s.[96] The Governing Body was initially identified obliquely as the Watch Tower Society's seven-member Board of Directors,[97] although the Board at that time played no role in establishing Watchtower doctrines or making editorial and publishing decisions. Those decisions were made entirely by the Society president, who exercised unrestricted freedom.[98][99] Such had existed from the Watch Tower Society's origins: a 1923 Watch Tower noted that Russell alone directed the policy and course of the Society "without regard to any other person on earth"[100] and both his successors, Rutherford and Knorr, also acted alone in establishing Watch Tower doctrines. An organizational change on January 1, 1976 for the first time gave the Governing Body the power to rule on doctrines[101] and become the supreme ruling council of Jehovah's Witnesses.[102] Despite this, The Watchtower in 1971 claimed that a Governing Body of anointed Christians had existed since the 19th century to govern the affairs of God's anointed people.[103]
  • Treatment of disfellowshipped persons. In the 1950s when disfellowshipping became common, Witnesses were to have nothing to do with expelled members, not conversing or showing them recognition.[104] Family members of the expelled person were permitted occasional "contacts absolutely necessary in matters pertaining to family interests", but could not discuss spiritual matters with them.[105] In 1974 The Watchtower, acknowledging some unbalanced Witnesses had displayed unkind, inhumane and possibly cruel attitudes to those expelled,[106] relaxed restrictions on family contact, allowing families to choose for themselves the extent of association,[107], including whether or not to discuss some spiritual matters.[108] In 1980 the Witnesses' Brooklyn headquarters had advised travelling overseers a person need not be promoting "apostate views" to warrant disfellowshipping; they were told "appropriate judicial action" should be taken against a person who "continues to believe the apostate ideas and rejects what he has been provided" through The Watchtower.[109] In 1981, a reversal of policy occurred, with Witnesses instructed to avoid all spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped ones, including even a close relative[110] Witnesses were instructed to avoid greeting disfellowshipped persons [111]"If a Relative Is Disfellowshiped", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, page 28.</ref>[112] Parents were permitted to care for the physical needs of a disfellowshipped minor child. An ill parent or physically or emotionally ill child could be accepted back into the home "for a time". Witnesses were instructed not to eat with a disfellowshipped relative and were warned that emotional influence could soften their resolve.[113] The rules on shunning were extended in 1981 to include those who had resigned from the religion voluntarily.[114][115]
  • Fall of "Babylon the Great". Russell taught that the fall of the "world empire of false religion" had taken place in 1878 and predicted "Babylon's" complete destruction in 1914.[116] After that date passed, Rutherford, in 1917, claimed religion's final destruction would take place in 1918, explaining God would destroy churches "wholesale" and that "Christendom shall go down as a system to oblivion".[117] In 1988 the Watch Tower Society claimed Babylon had actually fallen in 1919 "as far as having any captive hold on God's people was concerned" (the fall indicated by the release from prison in 1919 of senior Watchtower figures),[118] with her "final destruction" "into oblivion, never to recover", expected once again "in the near future".[119]
See also: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

United Nations' Department of Public Information association

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and the United Nations

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the United Nations is one of the 'superior authorities' that exist by God's permission, and that it presently serves a purpose in maintaining order, but they refuse to give it political support or consider it as the means to achieve peace and security. Jehovah's Witnesses also believe that UN is the "image of the wild beast", that is, the representative of the global political system referred to in Revelation 13:1-18, and the second fulfillment of the "abominable thing that causes desolation" from Matthew 24:15, that is, the political means that will be used for the devastation of the organized false religion on a world scale,[120][121] and that, like all other political powers, it will be destroyed and replaced by God's heavenly Kingdom.[122] Jehovah's Witnesses have denounced other religious organizations for having offered political support to the UN.[123]

On October 8, 2001 an article was published in the British Guardian newspaper questioning the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society's registration as a non-governmental organisation (NGO) with the United Nations Department of Public Information and accusing the Watch Tower Society of hypocrisy.[124] Within days of the article's publication, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society submitted a formal request for disassociation, removing all association with the United Nations Department of Public Information,[125] and released a letter stating that the reason for becoming associated with the United Nations Department of Information (DPI) was to access their facilities, and that they had not been aware of the change in language contained in the criteria for NGO association.[126] The purpose of membership is to "promote knowledge of the principles and activities of the United Nations". At the time NGO association was sought, "the organization agreed to meet criteria for association, including support and respect of the principles of the Charter of the United Nations".[127]

Social controversies

Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood

Jehovah's Witnesses reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood and its primary components (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma), and transfusions of stored autologous blood or its primary components. As a doctrine, Jehovah's Witnesses do not reject transfusion of whole autologous blood so long as it is not stored prior to surgery (e.g. perioperative extraction and transfusion of autologous blood). This religious position is due to their belief that blood is sacred and represents life in God's eyes. Jehovah's Witnesses understand scriptures such as Leviticus 17:10-14 (which speaks of not eating blood) to include taking blood into the body via a transfusion.[128] Controversy has stemmed, however, from what critics state are inconsistencies in Witness policies on blood.[citation needed]

Fractions and components

In the case of minor fractions derived from blood, each individual is directed to follow their own conscience on whether these are acceptable.[129][130] This is because it is difficult to define at what point blood is no longer blood. As a substance is broken down into smaller and smaller parts it may or may not be considered the original substance. Therefore some of Jehovah's Witnesses personally choose to accept the use of blood fractions and some do not. However, if a fraction "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to them.[131]

Such a stance of dividing blood into major components and minor fractions rather than either accepting all blood or requiring all blood components to be poured out onto the ground has led to criticism from organizations such as the Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood.[132] Witnesses respond that blood as the fluid per se is not the real issue. They say the real issue is respect and obedience regarding blood, which they perceive as being God's personal property.[133][134] Members are allowed to eat meat that still contains small traces of blood remaining. Once blood is drained from an animal, the respect has been shown to God and then a person can eat the meat. Jehovah's Witnesses view of meat and blood is therefore different from the Jewish view that goes to great lengths to remove even minor traces of blood.[135]

According to author Kerry Louderback-Wood, the Watch Tower Society misrepresents the scope of allowed fractions. If taken together, they "total the entire volume of blood they came from".[136] An example of this can be seen in blood plasma, which consists of 90-96% water. The remaining amount consists mainly of albumin, globulins, fibrinogen and coagulation factors. These four fractions are allowable for use, but only if taken separately. Critics have likened this to banning the eating of a ham and cheese sandwich but allowing the eating of bread, ham and cheese separately.[137]

The human body contains between 2–3 kg of leukocytes (white blood cells), but only about 3% of these are in the blood. White blood cells are considered a major component of blood and therefore forbidden. Human breast milk contains about five hundred thousand to five million white blood cells per millilitre,[138] however this is not forbidden.

Storing and donation

Jehovah's Witnesses strictly reject the storage of blood as being against the direction from the Bible to pour blood out onto the ground. It is due to this understanding that the use of stored autologous blood, that is the storage of one's own blood before surgery, is prohibited.

They are told the acceptance of blood fractions from donated blood is a matter of conscience. Watch Tower literature claims the donation of blood is unbiblical, since this would be seen as condoning blood transfusions. The only way for fractions of blood to become available for use is through the storing and processing of such blood donations. This has led to criticism of perceived contradictory and inconsistent policies.[139]

Legal considerations

Regardless of the medical considerations, Jehovah Witnesses advocate that physicians should uphold the right of a patient to choose what treatments they do or do not accept (though a Witness is subject to religious sanctions if they exercise their right to choose a blood transfusion).[140] Accordingly, US courts tend not to hold physicians responsible for adverse health effects that a patient incurred out of his or her own requests.[141] However, the point of view that physicians must, in all circumstances, abide by the religious wishes of the patients is not acknowledged by all jurisdictions (for one example, see France).

The situation has been controversial, particularly in the case of children. In the United States, many physicians will agree to explore and exhaust all non-blood alternatives in the treatment of children at the request of their legal guardians. However, some state laws require physicians to administer blood-based treatment to minors if it is their professional opinion that it is necessary to prevent immediate death or severe permanent damage.

An essay entitled, "Jehovah's Witnesses, Blood Transfusions, and the Tort of Misrepresentation", found in the Autumn issue of Baylor University's Journal of Church and State, published December 13, 2005, discusses the potential vulnerability of Jehovah's Witnesses' legal corporations to significant claims for compensation because of the religion's possible misrepresentation of the medical risks of blood transfusions. According to the essay, constitutional guarantees of freedom of religion do not remove the legal responsibility that every person or organization has regarding misrepresenting secular fact.

Animal blood

The Watchtower has stated that "Various medical products have been obtained from biological sources, either animal or human ... Such commercialization of ... blood is hardly tempting for true Christians, who guide their thinking by God's perfect law. Our Creator views blood as sacred, representing God-given life ... blood removed from a creature was to be poured out on the ground, disposed of."[142]

Reporting of sexual abuse

Main articles: Jehovah's Witnesses and child sex abuse and Silentlambs

The religion's official policy on child protection, which discusses the procedures for reporting child sexual abuse, states that elders obey all legal requirements for reporting sex offenders, including reporting uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations where required by law and that they are to discipline pedophiles. Victims are permitted to notify the authorities if they wish to do so.[143] However critics such as Silentlambs have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of employing organizational policies that make the reporting of sexual abuse difficult for members. For a report of abuse to be considered "proven" (to the degree that would merit congregational judicial discipline), there needs to be two witnesses or a confession by the accused (only in cases where there is no physical evidence of the abuse).[144][145]

Some victims of sexual abuse have asserted that when reporting abuse they were ordered to maintain silence to avoid embarrassment to both the accused and the organization.[146][147]

Self-determination

Critics of Jehovah's Witnesses (e.g., Randall Watters, Timothy Campbell, David Grosshoeme, Kaynor Weishaupt, Jan Groenveld) object to Witness policy and behavior where, in their view, the integrity of family relationships and the capacity of members to exercise freedom of mind is impacted. The religion has been accused of having a dogmatic and authoritarian form of leadership,[148] reinforced with a disciplinary system that encourages informers[149][150] and includes the sanctions of the disfellowshipping and possible lifetime shunning of members.[149]

Authoritarian control

Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be exercised within the boundaries of God's laws and principles", [151] and that "only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good and bad."[152] There are claims that the Watch Tower Society's emphasis of the term "theocratic organization" – used particularly since 1939 to describe the religion's authority structure, which places God at the apex of its organization – is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses[153] and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question anything the Watch Tower Society publishes as truth.[148] Witnesses are encouraged to feel dependent on "the organization", are discouraged from engaging in independent Bible study[154][155] and are told they are incapable of understanding the scriptures without its involvement.[156] Rejection of Watchtower teachings is equated with "rejection of divine rulership", and therefore of God.[157] The organization's power to "dominate" its members is gained by "the acceptance of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society quite literally as the voice of Jehovah – God's 'mouthpiece'."[154] The Watch Tower Society's firm direction that members not read criticism of the organization[158][159] or material published by other religions,[160][161] is claimed to create a form of mental isolation that has been cited as an element of mind control.[162] It is claimed the organization's aim is to create a sterile atmosphere in which its views and interpretations can circulate without having to confront any challenge.[162]

Coercion

Critics claim that Jehovah's Witnesses use of "theocratic law"[163] places coercive pressure on members to submit to doctrines without question.[164] Constant urging to "put kingdom interests first" and devote increasing amounts of time to door-to-door preaching efforts has been described as coercive pressure. Many Witnesses are said to constantly feel guilty that they are not doing more in "field activity".[165] Since 1920 the Watch Tower Society has required all congregation members participating in the preaching work to turn in written reports of the amount of their activity[166] and in 1943 it imposed personal quotas, requiring all active Witnesses to spend at least 60 hours of door-to-door preaching per month, claiming these were "directions from the Lord".[167] Although these quotas were subsequently removed, critics claim "invisible" quotas remain, obliging Witnesses to meet certain levels of preaching work to remain in good standing in the congregation[168] or to qualify for eldership.[165] One commentator, noting that the emphasis on a personal track record meant salvation was effectively being "bought" with "good works", observed: "No matter how long a Witness remains an active distributor of literature, the moment he ceases to be active he is regarded by his peers as good as dead in terms of achieving the ultimate goal of life everlasting in an earthly paradise ... Few realize upon entering the movement that the purchase price is open-ended and that the bill can never be paid in full until death or the advent of Armageddon."[154]

Russian religious scholar Sergei Ivanenko, in a dissenting opinion to a report by a panel of experts to Moscow's Golovinsky Intermunicipal Court in 1999, stated, "It would be a serious mistake to represent the Religious Organization of Jehovah's Witnesses as a religion whose leadership forces its rank and file believers to engage in one form of activity or another, or place upon them strict restrictions or directives." Ivanenko, who based his view on a study of Watch Tower Society literature, concluded: "Jehovah's Witnesses strive to live in accord with Bible principles on the basis of an individual, voluntary choice ... This also applies in full measure to preaching." [169] James Beckford, a professor at the University of Warwick, England, who published a study of English Jehovah's Witnesses in 1975,[170] also told the court: "It is important for each of them to exercise free moral agency in choosing to study the Bible and to live in accordance with their interpretation of its message."[171]

Medical and legal commentators have also noted cases of Witness medical patients being coerced to obey the religion's ban on blood transfusions.[172][173]

Conformity

The religion's Governing Body has been accused of resenting, deprecating and seeking to silence differences of viewpoint within the organization [148] and demanding organizational conformity that overrides personal conscience.[165] In the 1954 "Walsh case" trial in Scotland, Watch Tower Society legal counsel Hayden C. Covington said of Jehovah's Witnesses: "We must have unity ... unity at all costs".[174] A key organizational textbook declared Witnesses "must be seen to be gathered together in unity of thought and action regardless of their physical location on earth",[175] while Watchtower literature strongly emphasises the importance of avoiding or fighting against the "dangers" and "infection" of "independent thinking", such as "questioning the counsel that is provided by God's visible organization".[176][177]

Critics have claimed the Watch Tower Society places strong pressure on all members to conform to the teachings and personal behaviour it sanctions.[162] Watchtower publications are studied at meetings with "catechistical" question-and-answer sessions in which both questions and answers are provided by the organization, placing pressure on Witnesses to repeat the thinking of the headquarters organization.[162] Another study noted: "The conforming multitudes are told what they should feel and think."[154] Witnesses who do voice viewpoints different from those expressed in publications and at meetings are said to be viewed with suspicion.[168] Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz has claimed most Witnesses would be fearful to voice criticism of the organization for fear of being accused of disloyalty.[165]

The Society has stated: "The true Christian congregation cannot rightly be accused of being harshly dogmatic", [178], but one study of the Society's teaching methods concluded: "Any suggestion that the society encourages genuine open debate, or even discussion, not contained by the strictures of a given answer to a given question must be rejected. Jehovah's Witnesses will brook no criticism from within, as many concerned members who have attempted to voice alternative opinions regarding the basic doctrine or application of social pressure have discovered to their chagrin."[154]

Treatment of members who disassociate

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline

If a member of Jehovah's Witnesses does not comply with the organisation's interpretations, they can be excommunicated, termed disfellowshipping. This involves being shunned by all members of the religion, including any family members that do not live under the same roof. Due to the social nature of the religion, being shunned can isolate a member in a very powerful way and can be devastating if everyone in a member's social circle participates in the shunning. Jehovah's Witnesses say that disfellowshipping is a scripturally-documented method to protect the congregation from the influence of those who practice serious wrongdoing. [3] The Encyclopedia of Religion notes: "Any community claims the right to protect itself against nonconforming members who may threaten the common welfare. In a religious setting this right has often been reinforced by the belief that the sanction [of excommunication] affects one's standing before God."[179]

Prior to 1981, if a member disassociated from the religion but was not disfellowshipped, the practice of shunning was not required and normal contact could be maintained. A policy change in 1981 required that all who were considered to have disassociated by their actions were to be treated in the same way as a member who had been disfellowshipped for wrongdoing. The new policy meant that congregation members are not informed whether a person was being shunned due to "disfellowshipping" or "disassociation", or on what grounds. Many of these changes were precipitated by events surrounding Raymond Franz, a former governing body member.

Prior to the early 90's, members who were publishers, but not yet baptized (usually children or relatively new members) who committed wrongdoing would similarly be shunned, in this case being termed "disassociated". This practice was revised in the early 90's when it was deemed that those who had not taken the step of committing themselves to obedience by being baptized (Jehovah's Witnesses condemn infant baptism) could not be sanctioned in the same way as those who had been baptized.

Critics state that fear of being shunned and family break-up causes people who might otherwise freely leave the religion to stay.[180][181] The only way to officially leave the religion is to write a letter requesting to be disassociated or to be disfellowshipped, but both entail the same set of prohibitions and penalties. Critics contend the judicial process involved, due to its private and nearly autonomous nature, contradict the precedent found in the Bible and the organizations' own teachings[182] and can be used in an arbitrary manner if there is consensus among just a few to so use their authority.[183]

References

  1. ^ Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, 2007, chapter 12
  2. ^ In a 1954 court case, Franz was invited to translate a passage of Genesis from English to Hebrew. (Translator's proof, page 102-103). He declined, saying he would not attempt it. Heather and Gary Botting wrongly claim (page 98) he could make no sense of "an elementary passage of Hebrew from Genesis".
  3. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. pp. 56. ISBN 0-914675-23-0. 
  4. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 494–505. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  5. ^ a b c d e Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 174–176. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. 
  6. ^ Robert M. Bowman Jr, Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses, (Grand Rapids MI: Baker Book House, 1992); Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, 2003, The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses, accessible from this site, which quotes a number of scholars regarding theological bias of the New World Translation; Samuel Hass stated: "While this work indicates a great deal of effort and thought as well as considerable scholarship, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages." Journal of Biblical Literature, December 1955, p. 283
  7. ^ C.H. Dodd: "The reason why [the Word was a god] is unacceptable is that it runs counter to the current of Johannine thought, and indeed of Christian thought as a whole." Technical Papers for The Bible Translator, Vol 28, No. 1, January 1977
  8. ^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 98–101. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  9. ^ Lists of controversial statements, such as those found below, are found in a number of books including Watters, Randall (2004) Thus Saith Jehovah's Witnesses, Common Sense Publications; Gruss, Edmond (2001) Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?, Xulon Press; Reed, David A. (1990) Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989, Baker Books and at websites including Watchtower Information Service; Quotes-Watchtower.co.uk; Reexamine.Quotes.
  10. ^ The Time is at Hand, Watch Tower Society, 1990, pages 98-99, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 193.
  11. ^ Watch Tower, November 1, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 228.
  12. ^ The Watchtower, 15 January, 1892, page 1355
  13. ^ The Watchtower, 15 July, 1894, page 1677
  14. ^ Watch Tower, June 15, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 225.
  15. ^ a b c d e Watch Tower, July 15, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 226.
  16. ^ Watch Tower, November 1, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 228.
  17. ^ "Why So Many False Alarms?", Awake!, March 22, 1993, footnote, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 201.
  18. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, Watch Tower Society, 1959, page 52.
  19. ^ "A Solid Basis for Confidence", The Watchtower, July 15, 1976, page 440.
  20. ^ Gruss, Edmond C. (1972). The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co. pp. 87–88. ISBN 0-87552-306-4. 
  21. ^ Charles Taze Russell and Nelson H. Barbour, The Three Worlds (1907) as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, pages 21-22.
  22. ^ Charles Taze Russell, The Time Is At Hand (1891) as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 44.
  23. ^ Melvin D. Curry, Jehovah's Witnesses: The Millenarian World of the Watch Tower, Garland, 1992, as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 45.
  24. ^ Watch Tower, 1916, as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 46.
  25. ^ The Finished Mystery, 1917, p. 485, 258, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 206-211.
  26. ^ J. F. Rutherford, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, 1920, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 212-214.
  27. ^ Watch Tower, May 15, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 224.
  28. ^ Watch Tower, June 15, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 225.
  29. ^ The Way to Paradise booklet, Watch Tower Society, 1924, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 230-232.
  30. ^ Face the Facts, 1938, pp. 46-50
  31. ^ The Watchtower, Sep. 15, 1941, p. 288
  32. ^ The Watchtower, May 1, 1942, p. 139
  33. ^ Life Everlasting in Freedom of the Sons of God. Watch Tower Society. 1966. pp. 29-35. http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/lifeeverlasting/1966_Life_Everlasting.pdf. , as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 238-239.
  34. ^ Talk by F. W. Franz, Baltimore, Maryland 1966, cited by Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, and by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 238-239.
  35. ^ The Watchtower, May 1, 1968, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 242.
  36. ^ Kingdom Ministry, Watch Tower Society, March 1968, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 246.
  37. ^ Awake!, May 22, 1969, p. 15
  38. ^ Kingdom Ministry, Watch Tower Society, May 1974, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 247.
  39. ^ The Watchtower, Mar 1, 1984, pp. 18-19
  40. ^ Waldeck, Val Jehovah's Witnesses: What do they believe?. Pilgrim Publications SA. ISBN 1-920092-08-0.
  41. ^ Buttrey, John M (2004). Let No One Mislead You. iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-30710-8.
  42. ^ "They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them", The Watchtower, April 1, 1972, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007.
  43. ^ The Watchtower, Jan. 15, 1959, pp.39-41|"Whom has God actually used as his prophet? ... Jehovah's witnesses are deeply grateful today that the plain facts show that God has been pleased to use them. ... It has been because Jehovah thrust out his hand of power and touched their lips and put his words in their mouths..."
  44. ^ "Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger", The Watchtower, May 1, 1997, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007.
  45. ^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 174.
  46. ^ Awake!, October 8, 1968, p. 23.
  47. ^ "Why So Many False Alarms?", Awake!, March 22, 1993, footnote, which contains several quotes from Watchtower publications since 1896.
  48. ^ "Views From the Watchtower", Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, January 1908|"We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises ... We do not even [assert] that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophesy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."
  49. ^ "Preaching Christ—Through Envy or Goodwill?", The Watchtower, May 15, 1976, p. 297.|"Jehovah’s Witnesses as modern-day Christians are working hard to get this good news preached to every individual. They do not claim infallibility or perfection. Neither are they inspired prophets."
  50. ^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 174.
  51. ^ The Watchtower, What Does God Require of Us?, January 15, 1997, p. 22|“There is only one religious organization on this earth that has all these marks of true Christianity—Jehovah’s Witnesses!”
  52. ^ "Jehovah and Christ—Foremost Communicators", The Watchtower, September 1, 1991, pages 15-19.
  53. ^ "Christian Channel of Communication", The Watchtower, May 15, 1955.
  54. ^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 165.
  55. ^ The Watchtower 1933, pages 53, 62, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 165.
  56. ^ Life Everlasting in Freedom in the Sons of God Watch Tower Society, 1966, page 149, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 165.
  57. ^ "“The Things Revealed Belong to Us”", The Watchtower, May 15, 1986, pages 10-15.
  58. ^ "Flashes of Light - Great and Small", The Watchtower, May 15, 1995, page 17, 18.
  59. ^ Light 1, 1930, page 64.
  60. ^ Light 1, 1930, page 106.
  61. ^ The Watchtower, October 1, 1967, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 163.
  62. ^ The Watchtower, February 1, 1952, pages 79, 80 as cited by Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 97.
  63. ^ Decree Concerning The Edition And Use Of The Sacred Books, Council of Trent, Session IV, April 8, 1546, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 164. See decree at Global Catholic Network website.
  64. ^ "Flashes of Light - Great and Small", The Watchtower, May 15, 1995, page 17.
  65. ^ a b c Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 184.
  66. ^ Studies in the Scriptures Vol. II 1889 p. 239, Studies in the Scriptures Volume III 1891 p. 234, Studies in Scriptures Vol. IV 1897 p. 621.
  67. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 632.
  68. ^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, pages 20, 23.
  69. ^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 23.
  70. ^ Watchtower, February 1, 1925, page 371.
  71. ^ Watchtower, May 15, 1927, page 151.
  72. ^ Watchtower, June 1, 1927.
  73. ^ "The Corroborative Testimony of God's Stone Witness and Prophet, The Great Pyramid in Egypt", Chapter 10, Thy Kingdom Come, third volume of Studies in the Scriptures, 1910.
  74. ^ Watchtower, June 15, 1922, page 187, as reproduced by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 225, 226.
  75. ^ Watchtower, 1928, pages 339-45, 355-62, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 170.
  76. ^ Watch Tower, October-November 1881, as cited by Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 142.
  77. ^ The Battle of Armageddon by C. T. Russell, 1886, page 613, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, footnote, page 345.
  78. ^ Watch Tower, December 1, 1916, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 34.
  79. ^ Watch Tower, March 1, 1923, pages 68 and 71, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 63.
  80. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 626, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 67.
  81. ^ Watch Tower, October 1, 1909, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 67.
  82. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 626.
  83. ^ Thy Kingdom Come, 1891, page 23.
  84. ^ The Harp of God, (1921), 1924 ed., p. 231.
  85. ^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, pages 21, 46.
  86. ^ C.T. Russell, The Time Is At Hand (Watch Tower Society, 1889, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 190, 204.
  87. ^ Life, Watch Tower Society, 1929, page 170, as cited by Edmond C. Gruss, The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co, 1972, page 87.
  88. ^ J.F. Rutherford, Vindication - Book II, pages 257-258, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 65.
  89. ^ Watchtower, May 15, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 224.
  90. ^ Watchtower, May 1, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 221.
  91. ^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, pages 18-22.
  92. ^ "No Spiritual Energy Crisis for Discreet Ones", The Watchtower, August 15, 1974, page 507, footnote.
  93. ^ Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 484.
  94. ^ The Watchtower, June 15, 1952, page 376.
  95. ^ Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 484.
  96. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 107. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  97. ^ Qualified To Be Ministers, Watch Tower Society, 1955, page 381, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 74.
  98. ^ Marley Cole, Jehovah's Witnesses - The New World Society, Vantage Press, New York, 1955, pages 86-89, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 74.
  99. ^ Testimony by Fred Franz, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh Transcript, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh, 1954, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 75-76.
  100. ^ Watch Tower, March 1, 1923, page 68, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 59.
  101. ^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, pages 58-79.
  102. ^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, 1997, page 216.
  103. ^ The Watchtower, December 15, 1971, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 78.
  104. ^ The Watchtower, July 1, 1963, page 412.
  105. ^ The Watchtower, July 15, 1963, page 443.
  106. ^ "Maintaining a Balanced Viewpoint Toward Disfellowshiped Ones", The Watchtower, August 1, 1974, pages 467, "It is right to hate the wrong committed by the disfellowshiped one, but it is not right to hate the person nor is it right to treat such ones in an inhumane way."
  107. ^ "Maintaining a Balanced Viewpoint Toward Disfellowshiped Ones", The Watchtower, August 1, 1974, pages 471-472.
  108. ^ "Maintaining a Balanced Viewpoint Toward Disfellowshiped Ones", The Watchtower, August 1, 1974, page 471, par 19.
  109. ^ Letter to all circuit and district overseers from Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of New York, September 1, 1980, as reproduced by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 341.
  110. ^ "If a Relative Is Disfellowshiped", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, page 28.
  111. ^ "Disfellowshiping—How to View It", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, pages 24-25.
  112. ^ "If a Relative Is Disfellowshiped", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, page 30.
  113. ^ The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, pages 20-31, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 299-300.
  114. ^ "Disfellowshiping—How to View It", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, pages 23, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 299-300.
  115. ^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 357-359.
  116. ^ Watch Tower, June 15, 1911, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 188.
  117. ^ The Finished Mystery, 1917, p. 485, 258, 513 as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 206-211.
  118. ^ Revelation - It's Grand Climax at Hand!, Watch Tower Society, 1988, page 209.
  119. ^ Revelation - It's Grand Climax at Hand!, Watch Tower Society, 1988, pages 266, 269.
  120. ^ "No Calamity Will Befall Us" (Subheading). (Nov. 15, 2001). The Watchtower, p.19
  121. ^ "Let the Reader Use Discernment", (Subheading "A Modern-Day 'Disgusting Thing'"). (May 1, 1999). The Watchtower, p 14
  122. ^ "A World Without War-When?" Oct.1, 1991, pp.5 The Watchtower
  123. ^ The Watchtower, 1 June, 1997, p. 17 par. 15: "In the first place, what lies ahead for the world's false religions that have so often been extremely friendly with the UN? They are the offspring of one idolatrous fountainhead, ancient Babylon. Appropriately, they are described at Revelation 17:5 as "Babylon the Great, the mother of the harlots and of the disgusting things of the earth". Jeremiah described the doom of this hypocritical conglomerate. Harlotlike, they have seduced earth's politicians, flattering the UN and forming illicit relations with its member political powers."
  124. ^ Bates, Stephen (Oct. 8, 2001) "Jehovah's Witnesses link to UN queried", The Guardian
  125. ^ Bates, Stephen (Oct. 15, 2001) "'Hypocrite' Jehovah's Witnesses abandon secret link with UN", The Guardian
  126. ^ Letter to Editor - The Guardian" (Oct. 22, 2001) Office of Public Information
  127. ^ Letter from United Nations DPI/NGO Resource Centre
  128. ^ "How Can Blood Save Your Life?" (1990). Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
  129. ^ "Be guided by the Living God" (Jun. 15, 2004). The Watchtower
  130. ^ "Questions from readers: Do Jehovah's Witnesses accept any minor fractions of blood?" (Jun. 15, 2000). The Watchtower
  131. ^ Awake! August 2006 box on P. 11
  132. ^ Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood
  133. ^ The Watchtower November 1, 1961 p. 669 Questions From Readers
  134. ^ What Does The Bible Really Teach? 2005 P.128
  135. ^ [1] [2]
  136. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses, Blood Transfusions and the Tort of Misrepresentation, Journal of Church and State Vol 47, Autumn 2005 p. 815
  137. ^ Franz, Raymond. "In Search of Christian Freedom" - Chapter Nine. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 1991. ISBN 0-914675-16-8. p.732.
  138. ^ Jackson, K. & Nazar, A. "Breastfeeding, the Immune Response and Long-term Health", Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 106(4), 2006. Available online.
  139. ^ Franz, Raymond. "In Search of Christian Freedom" - Chapter Nine. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 1991. Pbk. ISBN 0-914675-16-8. pp.732.
  140. ^ Ivanhoe's Medical Breakthroughs - When Religion and Medicine Collide
  141. ^ http://www.watchtower.org/library/hb/index.htm?article=article_07.htm
  142. ^ The Watchtower (Feb. 1, 1997) p30
  143. ^ "Jehovah's Witnesses and Child Protection" (2003). Jehovah's Witnesses Office of Public Information.
  144. ^ Robinson, B.A (2005). "Jehovah's Witnesses (WTS) Handling of Child Sexual Abuse Cases", Religious Tolerance.org Retrieved Mar 3, 2006.
  145. ^ Tubbs, Sharon (Aug. 22, 2002), "Spiritual shunning", St. Petersburg Times.
  146. ^ "Another Church Sex Scandal" (Apr. 29, 2003). CBS News.
  147. ^ Cutrer, Corrie (Mar. 5, 2001). "Witness Leaders Accused of Shielding Molesters", Christianity Today.
  148. ^ a b c R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 4.
  149. ^ a b R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 11.
  150. ^ Muramoto, O. (January 6, 2001). "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses". BMJ 322: 37–39. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37. PMID 11141155. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1119307. 
  151. ^ Worship the Only True God chap. 5 p . 43 par. 4 Freedom Enjoyed by Worshipers of Jehovah
  152. ^ The Watchtower June 1 p. 11 par. 7 A Free People but Accountable
  153. ^ R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 17.
  154. ^ a b c d e Botting, Heather & Gary (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  155. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. pp. 158. ISBN 0415266092. 
  156. ^ Watchtower, Sep. 1, 1954, p. 529; Oct. 1, 1967, p. 587; Dec. 1, 1981, p.27; Feb 15, 1981, p.19
  157. ^ The Watchtower, February 15, 1976, page 124, as cited by R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", page 107,"Would not a failure to respond to direction from God through his organization really indicate a rejection of divine rulership?"
  158. ^ "Do not be quickly shaken from your reason", Watchtower, March 15, 1986
  159. ^ "At which table are you feeding?" Watchtower, July 1, 1994
  160. ^ Watchtower, May 1, 1984, page 31, as cited by R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", chapter 12
  161. ^ "Firmly uphold godly teaching," Watchtower, May 1, 2000, page 9.
  162. ^ a b c d R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", chapter 12
  163. ^ Watchtower, May 15, 1963, page 300, as cited by R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 239.
  164. ^ R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 5.
  165. ^ a b c d R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 6.
  166. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose", page 96, as cited by R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 4.
  167. ^ "Righteous requirements", Watchtower, July 1, 1943, pages 204-206, as cited by R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 4.
  168. ^ a b R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 16.
  169. ^ Expert Opinion by S. I. Ivanenko, p. 10, Golovinsky Intermunicipal Court, in the application of the Moscow Northern Administrative District prosecutor to liquidate the Religious Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow
  170. ^ The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses, John Wiley and Sons, 1975, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, 1997. Penton describes Beckford's book as "uneven" and marred by errors and a misunderstanding of certain basic Witness doctrines.
  171. ^ Sworn Expert Opinion, prepared by Professor James Beckford, University of Warwick, Coventry, England, November 1998, Golovinsky Intermunicipal Court, in the application of the Moscow Northern Administrative District prosecutor to liquidate the Religious Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow
  172. ^ “Jehovah's Witnesses case heads to B.C. court”, Vancouver Sun, April 1, 2007
  173. ^ Medical emergencies in children of orthodox Jehovah's Witness families: Three recent legal cases, ethical issues and proposals for management”, by J Guicho and, I Mitchell, Paediatrics & Child Health, Canadian Pediatric Society, December 2006.
  174. ^ Court transcript as cited by Heather & Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1984, page 67-68, also at Pursuer's Proof: Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh Transcript, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh, 1954.
  175. ^ Organized to Accomplish Our Ministry, published by Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1983, page 154, as cited by Heather & Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1984, page 83.
  176. ^ "Exposing the Devil’s Subtle Designs" and "Armed for the Fight Against Wicked Spirits", Watchtower, January 15, 1983, as cited by Heather and Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1984, page 92.
  177. ^ According to Randall Watters, who in 1981 published a pamphlet, "What happened at the world headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses in the spring of 1980?", cited by Heather and Gary Botting, a former Governing Body member is said to have referred Brooklyn headquarters staff to an organizational handbook containing 1,177 policies and regulations, telling them: "If there are some who feel that they cannot subject themselves to the rules and regulations now in operation, such ones ought to be leaving and not be involved here."
  178. ^ "Questions from readers", Watchtower, April 1, 1986.
  179. ^ Encyclopedia of religion ed. Eliade M, New York Macmillan, 1987
  180. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. pp. 150, 156-157. ISBN 0415266092. 
  181. ^ http://www.jwfacts.com/index_files/disfellowship.htm
  182. ^ Matthew 18:17, "The local court was situated at the gate of a city. (De 16:18; 21:19; 22:15, 24; 25:7; Ru 4:1) By "gate" is meant the open space inside the city near the gate... as most persons would go in and out of the gate during the day. Also, the publicity that would be afforded any trial at the gate would tend to influence the judges toward care and justice in the trial proceedings and in their decisions. (Insight on the Scriptures, Vol 1, p. 518)
  183. ^ In Search Of Christian Freedom by Raymond Franz, 2002, and In Search of Christian Freedom, pp.374–390 'The Misuse of Disfellowshipping', by Raymond Franz

Books Critical of Jehovah's Witnesses

  • Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, who is a former Jehovah's Witness and a professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
  • Apostles of Denial by Edmond C. Gruss. ISBN 0875523056 / ISBN 978-0875523057.
  • Crisis of Conscience by Raymond Franz, a former Jehovah's Witness who was a member of the Governing Body of the Watch Tower Society for nine years. This book gives a detailed account of the authority structure, practices, doctrines and decision-making practices Franz experienced while serving on the Governing Body. Sample chapters online: 1, 9, 10, 11, 12. Publisher: Commentary Press. 420 pages. Hardback ISBN 0-914675-24-9. Paperback ISBN 0-914675-23-0. 4th edition (June 2002)
  • The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return by Carl O. Jonsson. Jonsson considers the origin of the belief that the Gentile Times began in 607 B.C. and examines several lines of evidence and the methodology for deriving it. ISBN 0-914675-06-0 Publisher: Commentary Press (July, 1998, Fourth edition 2004)
  • The Gospel According to Jehovah's Witnesses Online book critiquing doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses written by a Roman Catholic layman.
  • The Inside Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by W.C. Stevenson. Online book written by former Circuit Overseer.
  • I Was Raised a Jehovah's Witness by Joe Hewitt. Hewitt gives a frank and compelling account of his life as a Jehovah's Witness and his subsequent persecution and excommunication after he decided to leave the Jehovah's Witness movement. Read selections from: I Was Raised a Jehovah's Witness (Google book search) Published 1997, Kregel Publications, ISBN 0825428769
  • Jehovah Himself Has Become King by Robert King. The author considers himself one of Jehovah's Witnesses but was excommunicated after publishing his review and criticisms of current Watchtower interpretations related to Bible prophecy, and documentation regarding the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society's involvement with the United Nations. He is presently preparing an updated, second edition. ISBN 1420854984 / ISBN 978-1420854985 / Publisher: AuthorHouse (September 14, 2005, First Edition) (Available from Amazon.com)
  • Jehovah's Witnesses Defended by Greg Stafford. The author considers himself one of Jehovah's Witnesses but has renounced affiliation with the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. This book reviews and thoroughly explores the most common, and/or prevalent, criticisms made about Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. http://elihubooks.com/books/
  • Jesus and the Trinity - Online book responding to Witness teaching on the Trinity
  • The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses by Heather and Gary Botting. Both authors were raised Jehovah's Witnesses and are trained scholars. In fact, the book is based on a doctoral dissertation by Heather Botting. Read selections from: The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses (Google book search) University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0802065452
  • 30 Years a Watchtower Slave: The Confessions of a Converted Jehovah's Witness by William J. Schnell. ISBN 978-0801063848
  • The Truth Book: Escaping a Childhood of Abuse Among Jehovah's Witnesses by Joy Castro, adopted as a baby and raised by a devout Jehovah's Witness family. Read selections from: The Truth Book: Escaping a Childhood of Abuse Among Jehovah's Witnesses (Google book search) Published 2005 Arcade Publishing, ISBN 1559707879
  • The Watchtower in Light of Scripture - Online book by former Jehovah's Witness Circuit Overseer
  • Witnesses of Jehovah by Leonard & Marjorie Chretien. ISBN 0890815879 / ISBN 978-0890815878.
  • Wolves Among Sheep by James Kostelniuk. Harpercollins Trade Sales Dept, ISBN 978-0006391074

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Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses".  Read more

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