Thomas McIntyre Cooley

(b. near Attica, N.Y., 6 Jan. 1824; d. Ann Arbor, Mich., 12 Sep. 1898), treatise writer and jurist. Cooley was an important figure in the growth of the University of Michigan and its law school. Elected to the Michigan Supreme Court in 1864, he served with distinction there for twenty years. In 1887 President Grover Cleveland appointed Cooley to the newly created Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). Though Cooley was disappointed in not being nominated to the U.S. Supreme Court, he had no inclination for private law practice.

In 1868, Cooley published the influential Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union. His discussion of due process in that treatise and his denial that individuals could arbitrarily be “deprived of liberty in particulars of primary importance to his or their ‘pursuit of happiness’” have been interpreted as an authoritative source for judicial protection of property rights, as well as a source for the doctrine of liberty of contract (see Contract, Freedom of).

Such a laissez‐faire interpretation misses the persistence of democratic values in Cooley's writings, as his opinions for the Michigan Supreme Court indicate. Cooley was troubled by the growing concentration of corporate power in the late nineteenth century. His suspicion of any kind of arbitrary power, coupled with his democratic values, made him an ambivalent critic of the collusion between corporate and legislative power. On the ICC, he sought to umpire relations between railroads and the federal government. Cooley's conservatism reflected a nostalgia for the simpler Jeffersonian world of preindustrial America.

— Alan R. Jones

American judge and legal scholar Thomas McIntyre Cooley (1824-1898) served as a State Supreme Court Justice in Michigan and led the court to a national reputation with a distinguished record. In addition, his book, "A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest Upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union", written in 1868, became the most widely-read and important work of its day on constitutional law.

Early Life

Thomas McIntyre Cooley was born on January 6, 1824, on a small farm in Attica, New York, in a rural part of western New York state. The son of Thomas and Rachel Cooley, he was part of a large, Protestant family. His father had come from Massachusetts to western New York 20 years earlier, and the Cooleys were a farming family.

Although the family was poor, learning was important to young Cooley. As a child he loved history and literature. He balanced his time between working on his father's farm and going to school. When he could not go to school, Cooley taught himself at home, but he did complete three years of high school. Later, he taught school in order to earn money for his education. As noted in American Biographical History of Self-Made Men, Cooley left the family farm in 1842 and became a lawyer's apprentice to Theron R. Stong in Palmyra, New York.

Settled in Michigan, Became a Lawyer

At the age of nineteen, Cooley moved west. As noted on the Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website, Cooley had planned to continue his studies in Chicago, but during his travels, he ran out of money. He settled in Adrian, Michigan, in 1843, and finished his law studies in the firm of Tiffany and Beaman. His biography in American Biographical History of Self-Made Men commented that Cooley was a "careful student … quick, through, and methodical."

Soon, there were many changes in Cooley's personal and professional life. In December 1846, he married Mary Horton, and the couple would have six children. Also in that year, he was admitted to the Michigan Bar. As noted in his biography on the Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website, Cooley began a fast-paced professional life upon his admission to the bar. He worked as a deputy county clerk and later, his biography noted, "worked in two law firms while editing the Adrian Watchtower, serving as court commissioner and recorder for Adrian, and cultivating his 100-acre farm."

As an attorney, the American Biographical History of Self-Made Men, noted, Cooley was known for his "great care and faithfulness, clearness, and logical force." His reputation likely led to his selection by the state legislature to compile the statutes of the state, which he completed in one year. As noted on the Cooley Law School website, after Cooley completed this task in early 1857, he was appointed reporter of the State Supreme Court, a position he would hold until 1864.

Accepted Position as Law Professor

In his biography on the Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website, it was noted that early in his career, Cooley was offered a number of teaching positions at various law schools around the country, but he declined. In 1859, when a department of law was being organized at the University of Michigan in nearby Ann Arbor, he accepted a position. He would remain at the school as a professor until 1884 and also served as dean of the law department and chair of the history department.

The Cooley Law School website noted that Cooley "taught constitutional law, real property, trust, estates, and domestic property." In addition, he "authored countless articles on legal subjects and wrote several full-length works." Once he began his professional relationship with the University of Michigan, Cooley moved to Ann Arbor permanently. Wilfred Shaw, who once served as general secretary of the Alumni Association and was editor of the Michigan Alumnus, reflected that Cooley's home "was long a center of the intellectual and social life of Ann Arbor."

The State Supreme Court Justice

In 1850, according to the Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website, Michigan's State Constitution read that circuit court judges would also serve as justices of the State's Supreme Court, serving six-year terms. This plan failed. In 1857, the Michigan State Legislature created a permanent State Supreme Court.

As added by American Biographical History of Self-Made Men, Cooley was appointed to the State Supreme Court in 1864, while serving as the dean of the University of Michigan Law School (as it was now known). He joined colleagues James V. Campbell and Isaac P. Christiancy on the bench. In 1868, Cooley became Chief Justice of the Court, and Benjamin F. Graves joined the Court, filling the Justice position vacated by Cooley. Together, these four men became known as "the Big Four."

As both a justice and chief justice, Cooley faced many challenges as the state of Michigan grew and changed. Yet, as it was noted in his profile in American Biographical History of Self-Made Men, Cooley had an "enviable reputation" and possessed "genial qualities … a delicate sense of honor … and strict integrity." His profile added, "his eminent public services entitle him to rank among the foremost men of Michigan."

One of the best known cases Cooley and the State Supreme Court heard involved the establishment of public high schools. In his book Michigan: A History of the Wolverine State, Willis F. Dunbar explained that the Michigan State Legislature passed an act in 1859 that authorized any school district with more than 200 children to establish a high school. The school board would then put forth a proposal to its residents, who would vote on a tax to support the high school. Some school districts ran into resistance, as their residents believed a primary school education was sufficient.

As told by Bruce A. Rubenstein and Lawrence E. Ziewacz in their book Michigan - A History of the Great Lakes State, a group of Kalamazoo, Michigan, citizens filed suit in 1873. They were opposed to taxes supporting a local high school. The citizens lost, but the decision was ultimately appealed to the State Supreme Court.

On July 21, 1874, the Court voted to uphold the lower court's decision, and Cooley spoke for the majority opinion. Rubenstein and Ziewacz noted that "Cooley's opinion helped convince state residents of the propriety of state-funded education." American Biographical History of Self-Made Men added that "the 'Kalamazoo Case' laid the legal foundation for the growth of high schools not only in Michigan, but in other states. … [T]he case is cited in the major histories of American education."

Cooley wrote many of the opinions for the State Supreme Court, including, as the Cooley Law School website noted, the "People ex rel. Sutherland v. Governor, 29 Mich. 320 (1874), which remains a benchmark in the separation of powers among the three branches of government."

The Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website noted that during these years, Michigan's State Supreme Court, led by Cooley and the rest of the "Big Four," was soon "recognized throughout the United States as a strong judiciary, ranking with the best in the land. The Court worked with a new Constitution in the formative years of Michigan's statehood. It was instrumental in sharpening judicial procedures and resolving constitutional issues." The professional relationship of the "Big Four" would end in 1875, when Justice Christiancy was elected to the United States Senate.

Cooley the Writer

As noted on the Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website, Cooley was also known for his literary works. He wrote a number of law articles, manuals, and books, the most famous being A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest Upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union. In this book, written in 1868, Cooley was the first to interpret 'due process of law,' mentioned in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution, as a means of broadly protecting property and liberty of contract.

Cooley also wrote The Law of Taxation (1876, 4th edition in 1924), Michigan, a History of Governments (1885, rev. ed. 1905), The Element of Torts, and General Principles of Constitutional Law, (2nd edition in 1891) and served as assistant editor of the American Law Register. In one of his writings, he also coined the phrase "A public office is a public trust."

Later Years

Cooley was committed to the ideals of private property, equal rights, and political liberty for all citizens. These influences also led to his intense dislike of special privileges for corporations. As a justice on the Michigan State Supreme Court, Cooley used common law in his opinions to place clear limitations on government power. He did this to keep corporations from influencing the government or violating public trust. He felt a distinct division between public and private activity was necessary.

Cooley retired from the State Supreme Court in 1885, and then, the Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website noted, "The later part of Cooley's career was played out on a national level. He was placed on a commission to investigate issues involving railroads." During Cooley's time, the railroad companies committed many unfair practices. He believed the separation of public and private spheres of activity would keep the railroads from financing their own development with public credit and tax revenues.

Because of the abuses perpetrated by the railroads, the Interstate Commerce Act became law in 1887. The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was established to enforce the Act. In 1887, U.S. President Grover Cleveland appointed him to the newly-established ICC. He was elected chairman and established the guidelines for the administration of this first important federal regulatory agency. He retired from the commission in 1891.

In his later years, Cooley received honorary degrees (LL.D.) from the University of Michigan, Harvard University, and Princeton. He continued to be highly regarded at the University of Michigan Law School. In 1895, a bronze bust statue of Cooley was placed in the University of Michigan Law Library. Shaw added, "Cooley's great work, with its high scholarship and profound learning, added greatly to the reputation of the University."

After he resigned from the Interstate Commerce Commission, Cooley continued to write legal articles until his death. He died on September 12, 1898, in Ann Arbor, at the age of 74.

The Cooley Legacy

In 1972, Cooley's contributions to law were permanently recognized when "The Thomas M. Cooley Law School" was founded in Lansing, Michigan, the state's capital. Thomas E. Brennan Sr., one of the founders of the law school, as well as its president, commented on Cooley's accomplishments, noting that "Justice Cooley, a law teacher, constitutional scholar, and small town practitioner, combined true scholarship with professional accomplishment, business acumen, and public service."

In addition to the law school, Cooley's legacy lives on in the 21st century. The law school's website noted that Cooley's writings are still cited in court opinions, and legal scholars continue to discuss his interpretations. Papers that Cooley wrote between 1850 and 1898 can also still be found at the University of Michigan Bentley Historical Library. Dunbar perhaps summed it up best when he wrote, "Cooley was the most notable jurist Michigan has ever produced."

Books

American Biographical History of Self-Made Men - Michigan Volume, Western Biographical Publishing Company, 1878.

Cooley, Thomas M., General Principles of Constitutional Law, Weisman Publications, 2 Ed edition, 1998.

Dunbar, Willis F., Michigan: A History of the Wolverine State, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995.

Dunbar, Willis Frederick, PhD, Michigan Through the Centuries, Lewis Historical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1955.

Jones, Alan, The Constitutional Conservatism of Thomas McIntyre Cooley: A Study in the History of Ideas, Garland Publishing, 1987.

May, George S., Michigan: An Illustrated History of the Great Lakes State, Windsor Publications, Inc., 1987.

Paludan, Phillip, A Covenant with Death: The Constitution, Law, and Equality in the Civil War Era, University of Illinois Press, 1975.

Rubenstein, Bruce A., and Lawrence E. Ziewacz, Michigan - A History of the Great Lakes State, Forum Press, 1981.

Shaw, Wilfred, (General Secretary of the Alumni Association and editor of the Michigan Alumnus), The University of Michigan, Harcourt, Brace, and Howe, 1920.

Online

"The Big Four," The Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website,http://www.micourthistory.org (January 13, 2002).

"History & Mission," Thomas M. Cooley Law School website,http://www.cooley.edu (January 13, 2002).

"Thomas M. Cooley," Amazon.com,http://www.amazon.com(January 17, 2002).

"Thomas M. Cooley," Biography Resource Center Online, Gale Group, 1999.

"Thomas M. Cooley, 25th Justice," The Michigan Supreme Court Historical Society website,http://www.micourthistory.org (January 13, 2002).

"Thomas M. Cooley - The Man," Thomas M. Cooley Law School website,http://www.cooley.edu (January 13, 2002).

"Welcome from the President," Thomas M. Cooley Law School website,http://www.cooley.edu (January 13, 2002).

(c.1740–84)

English architect. He gained his early professional experience in Robert Mylne's office, and won the competition to design the Royal Exchange (now City Hall), Dublin (1769–79), which encouraged him to move to the Irish capital. Appointed Clerk and Inspector of Civil Buildings in Dublin in 1775, he was the most important figure in the profession for a few years, and was significant in the creation of Irish Neo-Classicism. He designed Caledon House, Co. Tyrone (1779), later (1812) extended by Nash, and, with his assistant Francis Johnston, designed several churches in the Archdiocese of Armagh for Richard Robinson (1709–94), Archbishop of Armagh from 1765, including the exquisite Primate's Chapel, Armagh (1785). He was involved in the design of several country-houses, and was responsible for the Public Offices (1776–84), the Sublime (now demolished), Newgate Gaol (1775–81), and early plans for the Four Courts (all in Dublin). By 1781 Cooley was overshadowed by Gandon, who was to build the Four Courts (1786–1802) and many other important public buildings in Dublin.

Bibliography

• M. Craig (1969, 1982)
• McParland (2001)

The full bibliography for this book is available to download as a pdf file.
Download the bibliography for A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (PDF: 1.2MB)

(1824-1898), jurist, first chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Cooley was born on a small farm in upstate New York, the tenth of fifteen children. From his parents Cooley acquired a devout Protestant faith and a love of literature and history. Despite meager circumstances, Cooley attended three years of high school before apprenticing with a lawyer. When he was nineteen, Cooley moved to the Michigan frontier. There he became a nationally respected law teacher, scholar, judge, and administrator, whose contributions to the University of Michigan Law School, the Michigan Supreme Court, and the Interstate Commerce Commission helped establish the prestige of those institutions. His central contribution to American law, however, was A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union (1868), the most popular and influential constitutional law treatise of the late nineteenth century. Constitutional Limitations was the first treatise to formulate "due process of law" as a broad protection of property and liberty of contract. The treatise served as a basic authority for the Fourteenth Amendment's elaboration during the early Lochner era, when the judiciary began using the due process clause to void social welfare legislation.

Accordingly, historians have considered Cooley a seminal proponent of laissez-faire constitutionalism, but this assessment is wide of the mark. Cooley drew his constitutional views from two sources: the principles of Jacksonian democracy and the common law tradition. From these he derived a commitment to private property, equal rights, and political liberty and an aversion to corporate privileges.

Cooley's landmark treatise illustrates this Jacksonian-common law constitutionalism. He balanced a chapter advocating substantive due process with chapters supporting extensive police power regulation of private property and limited contract clause protection of corporate charters. Another seminal chapter urged expanded First Amendment protection of speech and press.

Cooley's constitutionalism is shown also by his work on the Michigan Supreme Court. In his opinions, he drew from the common law to set distinct limits on government power, but he did so to prevent corporations from using their influence to receive government largess or to violate the public trust. Cooley urged clear separation between the spheres of public and private activity to prevent railroads from using public credit and tax revenues to finance their development; to prevent manufacturing companies from using eminent domain to acquire mill sites; and to prevent businessmen and lawyers from using libel law to deter newspaper investigations of their activities.

Cooley's work on the Interstate Commerce Commission (icc) illustrates the same perspective. He interpreted the icc Act as authorizing the commission to regulate railroad rates, but only to lower them, never to raise them. Cooley also opposed judicial review of the commission's rate determinations. He saw rate making as an instance when common law due process did not require judicial process. (Eventually, the federal courts rejected these positions.)

Thus Cooley's constitutionalism was not dedicated simply to limited government and the protection of property. Although he believed the economic system generally should be free from state control, he also believed that government should closely regulate enterprises that possessed legal privileges not equally available to all citizens. Essentially, Cooley envisioned society as it was in the Age of Jackson: composed of small-scale entrepreneurs disciplined by a self-regulating market. He never understood that late-nineteenth-century technology was making large-scale, market-dominating corporations the normal form of economic endeavor and rendering the traditional common law an anachronism.

Consequently, Cooley's lot was to restate the constitutional principles of pre-Civil War America in an urbanizing and industrializing era without successfully addressing the emerging contradiction between its commitment to limited government and its distrust of corporate enterprise. By so doing, he unwittingly laid the groundwork for corporate America's claim to freedom from government regulation.

Bibliography:

Alan Jones, The Constitutional Conservatism of Thomas McIntyre Cooley (1987); Phillip Paludan, A Covenant with Death (1975), chap. 10.

Author:

Stephen A. Siegel

See also Constitution; Interstate Commerce Commission.

Cooley, Thomas McIntyre, 1824–98, American jurist, b. near Attica, N.Y. He was a judge (1864–85) of the supreme court of Michigan and was the first chairman (1887–91) of the Interstate Commerce Commission. His best-known work is A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States (1868, 8th ed. 1927). Cooley argued that the U.S. Constitution contained not only direct limitations on the power of the states (e.g., the prohibition in Article I, Section 10, against a state's impairing the obligations of contract) but also implied limitations that could be deduced from the political theory underlying the Constitution. For example, from the division of American governments into executive, legislative, and judicial branches he inferred the freedom of the judiciary from legislative interference. Cooley's study was highly influential in the early interpretation of the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. He also wrote extensively on the law of torts and taxation.

Bibliography

See C. E. Jacobs, Law Writers and the Courts (1954, repr. 1973); A. R. Jones, The Constitutional Conservatism of Thomas McIntyre Cooley (1987).

As a jurist, scholar, and educator in the late nineteenth century, Thomas McIntyre Cooley greatly influenced the development of U.S. constitutional law. In particular, Cooley's writings shaped later interpretation of the Due Process Clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution. His ideas were used, and sometimes misused, by others to help define a laissez-faire approach to constitutional law that sought to minimize the power of government over private and commercial life. (Laissez-faire is French for "let [people] do [as they choose].") Cooley's most important books include A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union (1868) and A Treatise on the Law of Torts (1879, 3d ed. 1906), both of which became the leading texts in their respective fields. In his writings, Cooley consistently defended constitutional government and its ability to protect the rights of individuals from arbitrary actions by the state.

Cooley had a distinguished career on the Michigan Supreme Court between 1864 and 1885. From the 1870s on, he was considered a leading candidate for a seat on the U.S. Supreme Court; however, he never received a nomination to that body. Cooley was also a founding member of the University of Michigan's law department in 1859, remaining there as a professor until 1884. As an indication of the complexity of Cooley's brand of conservatism, he served as the first chairperson of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the body that regulates interstate transportation. He did much important work to successfully establish the ICC as the federal government's first regulatory commission.

A descendant of seventeenth-century New England settlers, Cooley was born January 6, 1824, on a farm near Attica, New York, the eighth of his mother's thirteen children. He had a very basic education in local schools and did not attend college. In 1842, he began studying law under Theron R. Strong, a politician and lawyer from Palmyra, New York. After moving to Adrian, Michigan, to explore life on the frontier, Cooley earned admission to the bar in 1846. In that same year, he married Mary Horton. Cooley's frontier experiences in Michigan had a profound effect on him and shaped much of his later thought. From them he learned frugality and self-reliance, and he took great pride in being one of the state's pioneers. He later wrote of how Michigan had been transformed before his very eyes: "It was a state almost lost in its woods … but the magic touch of industry plied by vigorous hands speedily transformed the scene; the woods opened to the building of many beautiful and prosperous towns."

Cooley was influenced in his youth by the history and traditions of his New England forebears, as well as the values of Jacksonian Democracy, so named after Andrew Jackson, president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. The Jacksonians lay claim to the legacy of ThomasJefferson, and like Jefferson they had a bias toward an agrarian society rather than a commercial one. The Jacksonians were therefore suspicious of big government and big business, and saw both as a potential danger to the common individual. Cooley's constitutional philosophy grew out of the Jeffersonian and Jacksonian ideals of self-reliance; free trade; equal rights; limited government; and maximum personal liberty, including freedom of speech.

During the 1840s and 1850s, Cooley was a member of the radical wing of the Democratic party. He was, for example, a Free-Soiler, believing that territories and new states should remain free of slavery. In 1854, he accepted the Democratic nomination to run for district judge of common pleas in Toledo, but lost the election. His views on slavery led him to join the Republican party shortly after its inception in 1854, and he remained a member for the rest of his life.

After a difficult decade spent moving about and trying to get his legal career underway, in 1855, Cooley formed a law partnership in Adrian with Charles M. Croswell, who later became governor of Michigan. Two years later, the state legislature chose Cooley to compile the state statutes. He performed this task so ably that in 1858, he was appointed official reporter of the state's supreme court, an office he held through 1865 and in which he edited volumes 5 to 12 of Michigan Reports. Cooley became one of the three founding professors of the law department at the University of Michigan in 1859, and later he served as its dean. In 1884, he gave up his position with the law department to serve as professor of U.S. history and constitutional law in the literary department, a position he held until his death.

Largely because of his excellent work editing the Michigan Supreme Court's reports, in 1864, Cooley was elected to the Michigan Supreme Court. Not long afterward, he began to prepare a book based on his lectures on constitutional law. A Treatise on Constitutional Limitations made Cooley a nationally recognized authority on the Constitution.