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Zunghar Khanate (Зүүн гарын хаант улс) was the last great independent nomadic power on the steppe. It covered the area called Dzungaria and stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan, and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of this area is part of Xinjiang nowadays).
In 1678 Galdan received from the Dalai Lama the title Boshogtu Khan. This confirmed the Zunghars as the new leading tribe of the Oirats. However, the Zunghar rulers bore title of Khong Tayiji (originally meaning crown prince) while their state was often called Zunghar Khanate.[2] After deaths of Galdan Boshogtu Khan and Tsewang Rabtan, the Zunghar principality began to decline; and was bloodily annexed by the Qing Dynasty in 1756-59.
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Etymology
The word "Dzungar" is a compound of Züün, meaning "left" or "east" (in Mongolian, "left" is synonymous with "east", "right" is "west", "in the front" is "south", and "in the back" is "north"), and gar meaning "hand" or "wing". The region of Dzungaria derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the Eastern Mongols, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats.
History
Origin
The chiefs of the Zunghars were of the Choros lineage and reckoned their descent from the Oirat taishis Toghoon (d.1438) and Esen (r.1438-54). At the beginning of the 17th century, a young leader named Khara Khula emerged to unite the Oirats to fight Sholui Ubashi Khong Tayiji, the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha, who few years earlier expelled the Oirats from their home in the Kobdo region in present-day northwest Mongolia.[3] Early in his reign, Khara Kula united the Choros, Dorbod and Khoid tribes, thus forming the Dzungar nation. In the 1620s wars against the Khalkha, he could gain decisive victory over the Eastern Mongols. The Oirats homeland was under the dominion of Jasaghtu Khan of the Khalkha. In 1623 the Oirat confederation killed Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and secured their independence. At the time, only Torobaikhu, a leader of the Khoshud tribe could claim the title of Khan while Baatur Dalai Taishi of the Dorbods was considered the most powerful Oirat chief. Even so, Khara Khula's son Baatur Khung Taiji (d.1653) joined the 1636-42 expedition to Tibet led by Gushi Khan Torobaikhu.[4] After Baatur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by Dalai Lama) and much booty, he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs. With the migrations of the Torghuds, the Khoshuds and the Dorbods from 1630 to 1677, the Zunghars' relative power was increased in Zungaria.
In 1653 Sengge succeeded his father Baatur Khung Taiji as Zungharian chief, but an internal strife with his half brother Chechen Tayiji involved the Khoshuud.[5] From 1657 on, Amin-Dara's sons Sengge and Galdan faced disafection from their half-brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshuud, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670.[6]
Sengge's younger brother Galdan immediately returned from Tibet to lay life and took revenge on Chechen. As a Buddhist priest, Galdan had been to Tibet at the age of thirteen and had trained under the fourth Panchen Lama and then the Fifth Dalai Lama. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshuud, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Zungaria. However, Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and Tsewang Rabtan revolted against him, but they were also crushed in the end. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Although, already married Anu-Dara, granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing of Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in the establishment of hegemony over the Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him,[7] Galdan thus united the entire Oirats in Zungaria and Western Mongolia.
Conquest of the Tarim Basin and war with the Central Asians
Naqshbandi Sufi Imams had replaced the Chagatayid Khans in the early 17th century. They defeated the White Mountain. The exiled ruler Afaq of the White Mountain asked the Dalai Lama military assistance in 1677. By the request of the latter, Galdan overthrew the Naqshbandu Black Mountain and installed Afaq as his client ruler there.[8] Galdan decreed that the Turkestanis would be judged by their own law except in cases affecting the Zunghar Empire. The Zunghars kept control over the Tarim Basin until 1757.
In 1680 the Black Khirgizs raided Moghulistan and occupied Yarkend. The inhabitants of Yarkend appealed to Galdan Khan for help. The Zunghars conquered Kashgar and Yarkend; and Galdan had its ruler chosen by its inhabitants.[9] Then he invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain in modern Kazakhstan the next year; but failed to take Sairam city. Eventually, he could conquer Turfan and Hami the next year.[10] In 1683 Galdan's armies under Tsewen Rabtan reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana valley.
From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz city, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to immigrate westwards.[11] In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewen Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Zunghars controlled Zhei-Su Tashkent until 1745.[12]
Rivalry with the Khalkha
At first the Khalkhas and Oirats were in league, bound by the provisions of the Mongol-Oirat code.[13] In order to cement this union, Galdan attempted to ally with Zasaghtu Khan Shira who lost part of his subjects to Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji, and moved his ordo near the Altai Range. Tushiyetu Khan attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against the Tushiyetu Khan the next year, but they were eventually defeated and Dorji-jav was killed in ensuing battle. Chakhundorji murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Zasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. The Qing court intervened and called off the Mongolian aristocrats to assemble a conference.
The refusal of Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji (r.1655-99) to abide by arbitration broke the Mongol-Oirat union, and provoked the 1688 Zunghar invasion of Khalkha. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan conquered the land of the late Zasaghtu Khan, and advanced to the dominion of Chakhundorji. After two bloody battles with the Zunghars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his son Galdandorji fled to the Ongi River.
The Zunghars occupied the Khalkha homeland, and forced Jibzundamba Zanabazar to flee. The Qing court strengthened its northern border garrisons, and advised the Khalkhas to resist Galdan. After reinforced by fresh troops, the Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji counterattacked the Zunghars, and fought with them near the Olgoi Lake on the 3rd August 1688. The Oirats won after the 3-day battle. Galdan's conquest of Khalkha Mongolia drove the Khalkhas into the arms of the Qing Dynasty. In September Zanabazar and Chakhundorji decided to submit to the Qing Emperor.
In 1690 the Qing army halted his advance at Ulaan Budan in Inner Mongolia. By the end of that year, the Zunghars withdrew from the Eastern Mongolia. In 1691 a conference was held; and the Khalkhas accepted the Qing supremacy.
The first Oirat-Manchu war[14]
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The Qing army had difficulty in continuing the pursuit of Galdan because they were exhausted and food supply were low.[15] Kangxi Emperor stressed the common interest in peace of the Qing and the Mongols, and urged Galdan to stop his attacks on the northwest frontier.
In 1696 the Qing army crushed Galdan at the battle of Zuu mod near modern Ulaanbaatar. Galdan died the next year. When Ayuka Khan of the Kalmyks learned of Galdan's fate, he moved promptly to strengthen his ties with Galdan's rival and successor Tsewan-Rabtan.[16]
Intervention in Tibet
The Zunghars invaded Tibet - which was then dominated by the Khoshuud, another Oirad tribe - in 1717, deposed and killed a pretender to the position of the Dalai Lama (who had been promoted by Lhabzang, the titular King of Tibet), which met with widespread approval. The Fifth Dalai Lama encouraged Mongolian lamas to prevent any non-dGe-lugs-pa teaching among the Mongols. The Zunghars soon began to loot the holy places of Lhasa which brought a swift response from Emperor Kangxi in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Zunghars not far from Lhasa.[17][18]
Many Nyingmapa and Bonpos were executed and Tibetans visiting Zunghar officials were forced to stick their tongues out so the Zunghars could tell if the person recited constant mantras (which was said to make the tongue black or brown). This allowed them to pick the Nyingmapa and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras.[19] This habit of sticking one's tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom until recent times.
A second, larger, expedition sent by Emperor Kangxi expelled Tsewang Rabtan's force from Tibet in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the seventh Dalai Lama in 1721.[20]
The second Oirat-Manchu war
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Fall
At the death of Galdan Tseren in 1745 the Zunghars appeared still strong. However, the sudden collapse of the Khanate stemmed from Galdan Tseren's sons.[21] In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lamdarjaa seized the throne from his younger brother. He was overthrown by his cousin Dawaachi and the Khoid noble Amursanaa. But they began to fight each other for succession. In 1753 Dawaachi's 3 relatives ruling the Dorbod surrendered to the Qing, and Amursanaa followed. In spring 1755, the Qing Dynasty attacked Ghulja, and captured the Zunghar khan. Over the next two years, the Manchus and Mongol armies of the Qing Dynasty destroyed the remnants of the Zunghar khanate. Their last leader, Prince Amursanaa revolted against the Qing, and fled north to seek refuge with the Russians. (Amursanna died there of smallpox. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta for the Chinese to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Chinese request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment[22].) To commemorate his military victory, Qianlong established the Puning Temple Complex of Chengde in 1755.
Genocide
Qianlong emperor moved the remaining Zunghars people to the mainland and ordered the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou, and divided their wives and children to Qing soldiers.[23][24] Qing officials wrote about 30-50% of the Dzungar people were massacred, 30-40% killed by smallpox, and 20-30% ran to Russia or Kazakh.[25][26] and no people in the several thousands li area. Clarke wrote 80%, or between 480,000 and 800,000 people, were killed between 1755 and 1758 in what "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people."[27][28] Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong.[29] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars,[30] Mark Levene, a historian who specializes in the study of genocide,[31] has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."[32]
The Manchus filled in the depopulated area with immigrants from many parts of their empire, but a century later the Muslim Rebellion ravaged the same region. The surviving Zunghars were renamed Ööled (Öölöd).
Leaders of the Dzungar Khanate
- Khara Khula, title: Khong Tayiji
- Erdeni Batur, title: Khong Tayiji
- Sengge, title: Khong Tayiji
- Galdan, titles: Khong Tayiji, Boshogtu Khan
- Tsewang Rabtan, title: Khong Tayiji
- Galdan Tseren, title: Khan
- Tsewang Dorji Namjal, title: Khong Tayiji
- Lamadarjaa, title: Khong Tayiji
- Dawaachi, title: Khong Tayiji
See also
Notes
- ^ James A. Millward, Ruth W. Dunnell, Mark C. Elliott-New Qing imperial history, p.99
- ^ C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.622
- ^ Fred Walter Bergholz-The partition of the steppe, p.522
- ^ Henry Hoyle Howorth - History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part 1, p.595
- ^ Ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, David Morgan-The Mongol empire and its legacy, p.328
- ^ Autobiography of Dalai Lama V, Vol. Kha, fol 107b. II 5-6
- ^ Martha Avery -The Tea Road: China and Russia meet across the Steppe, p.104
- ^ Gertraude Roth Li - Manchu: a textbook for reading documents, p.318
- ^ Valikhanov, Ch. Ch. - The Russians in Central Asia, p.169
- ^ Baabar, Christopher Kaplonski, D. Suhjargalmaa - Twentieth century Mongolia, p.80
- ^ Michael Khodarkovsky - Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600-1771, p.211
- ^ C.P. Atwood-Ibid, p.622
- ^ David Sneath-The headless state, p.183
- ^ j.Bor-Mongol hiigeed Euvraziin diplomat shshtir, Vol.III, p.5, p.268
- ^ Hans J. Van de Ven-Warfare in Chinese history, p.270
- ^ Michael Khodarkovsky-Where two worlds met: the Russian state and the Kalmyk nomads, 1600-1771, p.134
- ^ Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)
- ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization. (1972), p. 85. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.(paper)
- ^ Norbu, Namkhai. (1980). "Bon and Bonpos". Tibetan Review, December, 1980, p. 8.
- ^ Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)
- ^ C.P.Atwood-Ibid, 623
- ^ G. Patrick March,'Eastern Destiny: Russian in Asia and the Pacific, 1996, Chapter 12
- ^ 大清高宗純皇帝實錄, 乾隆二十四年
- ^ 平定準噶爾方略
- ^ Wei Yuan, Military history of the Qing Dynasty, vol.4
- ^ 昭槤, 嘯亭雜錄, vol.3
- ^ Michael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37
- ^ Perdue 2005, p. 285
- ^ Perdue 2005, p. 283-287
- ^ Perdue 2005, p. 284
- ^ Dr. Mark Levene, Southampton University, see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.
- ^ Levene 2008, p. 188
References
- Perdue, Peter C. China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005.
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