Fish oil

(materials) Oil obtained from fish such as menhaden, pilchard, herring, and sardine; used as a drying oil in paint and as a raw material for detergents, resins, margarine, and so on.

These contain long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids which appear to offer some protection against problems associated with heart disease. The two main ones are EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid; C20 : 5 ω3) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid; C22 : 6 ω3). Fish oil concentrates containing these fatty acids are sold as pharmaceutical preparations. See also cod liver oil; halibut liver oil; menhaden.

Description

Fish oils are derived from such cold-water fish as salmon, cod, tuna, or mackerel. They have recently acquired a new visibility as dietary supplements because they are high in omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids, together with the omega-6 fatty acids, are important components of a healthful diet. The body cannot manufacture them, therefore they must be obtained from grains, fruits, vegetable oils, and other foods. In addition, people should consume a balanced ratio of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Some researchers believe that these two types of fatty acids should be consumed in a 1:1 ratio, while others maintain that people should obtain several times more omega-3 than omega-6 fatty acids from their diet. In either case, the fact that fish oils are high in omega-3 fatty acids may help people to maintain a good balance between the two types of fatty acids. The most important types of omega-3 fatty acids found in fish oils are eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The body needs EPA to produce prostaglandins, which are hormone-like substances that help to protect the heart and the cell membranes. DHA is required for the normal development of the brain, the eyes, and the reproductive system.

General Use

In general, fish oils are recommended as dietary supplements to lower the levels of triglycerides in the blood, counteract inflammation in various parts of the body, and thin the blood.

Heart Disease and Stroke

The omega-3 fatty acids in fish oils increase the concentrations of good cholesterol (high density lipoproteins, HDL) in the blood while decreasing the concentrations of bad cholesterol (triglycerides). They also lower the total cholesterol level. Furthermore, these omega-3 oils protect the heart by preventing the formation of blood clots and fatty deposits (plaque) on the arterial walls. In people with coronary heart disease, fish oils may help to reduce the risk of blood clots in the brain or in the lungs; pain associated with angina; and the risk of cardiac arrythmias.

The benefits of omega-3 fatty acids have been shown in clinical studies. Investigation of the possible benefits of fish oils began when researchers discovered that Eskimos rarely suffer from heart attacks or rheumatoid arthritis (RA) even though their diet is high in fat from fish, seals, and whales. Because these sources of fat have a high omega-3 fatty acid content, it was assumed that the type of fatty acid that they contained helped to protect the Eskimos from the usual consequences of high-fat diets. Later studies confirmed that diets high in omega-3 fatty acids decrease the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and abnormal heart rhythms. In one study of 20,551 doctors, those who ate at least one fish meal per week cut their risk of heart attacks in half compared to those who ate fish once a month or less. In the five-year Lyon study, men who followed a Mediterranean diet with emphasis on omega-3-rich oils, fish, fruits, and vegetables had their heart attack rates reduced by 70% compared to subjects in the control group. One question, however, is whether fish oil used by itself as a dietary supplement is as effective as a diet high in fish, since the two are not the same. One open trial of 11,324 people who were followed for three to five years found that fish oil did reduce the risk of death from heart attack. This study, however, was not a double-blind study, and its results cannot be taken as conclusive.

High Blood Pressure

Fish oils may help to control high blood pressure. Several studies have shown that taking fish oil can lower blood pressure. On the other hand, a 1997 study involving 2,000 subjects found no significant effect.

Rheumatoid Arthritis

Fish oil may be useful in managing the symptoms of early rheumatoid arthritis (RA). A significant reduction in joint tenderness, morning stiffness, and fatigue, coupled with an increase in grip strength, has been observed in patients taking fish oil capsules. Fish oil appears to reduce the symptoms of RA without side effects, and to increase the effectiveness of standard medications for it. Fish oil does not, however, appear to slow the progress of RA.

Asthma

It has been claimed that fish oils reduce inflammation of the airways and may prevent asthma attacks. According to one author, allergic disorders such as asthma may be triggered by too much omega-6 and too little omega-3 fats in the diet. Two studies undertaken in 1994 and 1996 respectively, however, found no benefits from using fish oil in the management of asthma.

Psoriasis and Autoimmune Disorders

Several small studies indicate that fish oil may be helpful in treating psoriasis, which is an inflammatory disorder of the skin; in lupus; and in Raynaud's phenomenon, an autoimmune disorder in which the patient's hands and feet are abnormally sensitive to cold and emotionalstress. With respect to the Raynaud's patients, small double-blind studies showed that very high doses of fish oil reduce their responses to cold. It appears, however, that doses as high as 12 g of fish oil daily are necessary to provide this effect. With respect to lupus, a small study of 30 subjects found that 14 out of 17 patients given daily doses of 20 g of EPA derived from fish oil had significant improvement. Subjects given a placebo either showed no improvement or got worse.

Osteoporosis

When taken together with calcium, essential fatty acids may help to protect women from osteoporosis. One 18-month study of 65 postmenopausal women found that those who were given a combination of omega-6 fatty acids (GLA) and omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil together with calcium had higher bone density and fewer fractures than those who were given the calcium and a placebo.

Gynecological Problems

Fish oil supplements may be helpful in alleviating the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and painful periods. A number of different substances that are high in fatty acids, including flaxseed oil and GLA as well as fish oil, have been recommended for painful menstrual periods. One four-month study of adolescents suggests that fish oil is useful in treating this condition. Forty-two young women were divided into two groups; half received a daily dose of 6 g of fish oil for two months, followed by two months of placebo. The other half received the placebo and fish oil in reverse order. The results indicated that the subjects had significantly less menstrual pain while taking the fish oil.

Bipolar Disorder and Depression

Fish oil does appear to offer considerable benefits to people with bipolar disorder. A four-month double-blind study of 30 subjects indicated that fish oil improves emotional stability and helps to prevent relapses. Of the 14 persons who took fish oil, 11 stayed well or improved, while only six out of 16 subjects given placebos stayed well. A 2001 report looked at the effects of fish oil on mood and depression. Two large studies showed a strong connection between rates of depression and bipolar disorder in countries with high amounts of fish in diets. Although researchers cannot say that fish oil is the only reason for the difference, evidence continues to mount that omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids may work as mood stabilizers.

Other Conditions

Fish oil has been touted as a useful treatment for diabetic neuropathy, allergies, migraine headaches, Crohn's disease, gout, and ulcerative colitis, but there has been little systematic research involving these applications. In addition, health food manufacturers list hair loss, memory problems, muscle strain, failing eyesight, liver complaints, rickets, and dental problems as ailments that can be treated with fish oil. No clinical studies have been cited in support of these claims.

Early studies in laboratories indicate that fish oils might prolong life in people with automimmune disorders like diabetes. Early results show that a diet high in fish oils helped improve immune system function in these patients.

Preparations

There is no minimum daily requirement of fish oil as such, but a healthy diet should supply at least 5 g of essential fatty acids every day. Typical doses of fish oil are 3–9 g daily, although some participants in research studies have taken much higher doses. If fish oil is taken as a dietary supplement, it should be taken in large enough doses to supply about 1.8 g of EPA and 0.9 g of DHA on a daily basis. Fish oil capsules are available in health food stores as over-the-counter items; prices range from $7 for 180 capsules of Norwegian cod liver oil to $14 for 180 capsules of salmon oil. Capsules of tuna oil and halibut liver oil are also available from several commercial suppliers.

Precautions

Fish oil can easily become rancid. The capsules can be stored in the refrigerator to slow the rate of oxidation. Another option is to purchase capsules that have added vitamin E.

The type of fish oil may make a difference. Although cod liver oil is the easiest form to obtain, it can cause a buildup of vitamin A and vitamin D in the body because these two vitamins are fat-soluble. Pregnant women should not take more than 2,500 IU of vitamin A per day because higher amounts can cause birth defects. Other adults should not consume more than 5,000 IU of vitamin A per day. Vitamin D can produce toxicity when taken at levels above 1,000 IU daily for long periods of time. Persons who obtain their fish oil from cod liver oil should check the label to see how much vitamin A and vitamin D it contains. It may be prudent to take salmon oil, mackerel oil, or oil from other coldwater fish.

Women who are pregnant or breast-feeding should talk to their physicians before taking fish oil supplements or any other medications.

Because fish oil can thin the blood, it should not be taken together with aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, or over-the-counter pain killers), Coumadin (warfarin), or other anti-clotting medications. Fish oil does not seem to cause problems with bleeding when it is taken by itself, however.

Side Effects

Fish oil generally appears to be safe when taken as a dietary supplement. The most common side effects are mild indigestion or a fishy taste in the mouth.

Interactions

Fish oil supplements may interact with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), warfarin, or other anti-clotting medications to cause excessive bleeding.

Resources

Books

Murray, Michael, ND, and Joseph Pizzorno, ND. Encyclopedia of Natural Medicine. 2nd ed. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing, 1998.

Sears, Barry. The Omega Rx Zone: The Miracle of the New High-Dose Fish Oil. Regan Books, 2002.

Periodicals

Nichols, Sonia. "Fish Oil Diets Extend Survival in Autoimmune-Prone Mice." Diabetes Week (November 26, 2001): 3.

"Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Treatment of Depression." Harvard Mental Health Letter (October 2001).

Organizations

American Association of Naturopathic Physicians (AANP). 8201 Greensboro Drive, Suite 300, McLean, VA 22102. (703) 610-9037. .

[Article by: Mai Tran; Teresa G. Odle]

The noun has one meaning:

Meaning #1: oil obtained from fish

A typical fish oil softgel

Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. It is recommended^[1] for a healthy diet because it contains the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), precursors to eicosanoids that reduce inflammation throughout the body. Fish do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them from either consuming microalgae that produce these fatty acids, as is the case with fish like herring and sardines, or, as is the case with fatty predatory fish, by eating prey fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids from microalgae. Such fatty predatory fish like mackerel, lake trout, flounder, albacore tuna and salmon may be high in omega-3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the food chain, these species can accumulate toxic substances (see biomagnification). For this reason, the FDA recommends limiting consumption of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g. albacore tuna, shark, and swordfish) due to high levels of toxic contaminants such as mercury, dioxin, PCBs and chlordane.^[2] More than 50 percent of the world fish oil production is fed to farmed salmon.^[3] There are DHA Omega-3 vegetarian products, made from algae, available if toxic contaminants are of concern.

Contents 1 Supplements 2 Production 3 Benefits 4 References 5 External links

Supplements

Many people have turned to fish oil supplements to get adequate omega-3 fatty acids. Some supplement formulations include other fatty acids such as omega-6 and omega-9. However, omega-6 is found in many foods in our diets such as cereals, whole grain bread, baked goods, fried foods and margarine. Therefore supplementation with omega-6 is not required. As omega-6 has pro-inflammatory effects, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids can help to normalize the ratio of Omega-3 to Omega-6

Fish oil supplements have sometimes come under scrutiny in recent years. In early 2006, government agencies such as the Food Standards Agency in the UK and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland reported PCB levels that exceeded the strict new European maximum limits in several fish oil brands,^[4][5] which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the growing concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards program, a voluntary review process, was created at University of Guelph.

Patented production purification processes do however exist in order to remove pollutants and dioxins from fish oil to levels far below the EU limits.This patented technology is called stripping technology.

EU regulations have set a limit on the percentage of toxins that can be present in the oil for it to still be beneficial to the consumer. Recently, concerns in the UK and Ireland with regards to upholding the limits set have resulted in some major manufacturers taking their products off the market on a temporary basis.

Most of the fish oils used for omega purposes originate near Peru, Chile and Morocco, because the omega-3 levels in the fish caught in these areas are higher (around 30%) than in Scandinavian and other fish oils (around 20%). Fish oils are being used in the omega-3 industry to produce nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. However, the largest off-takers of the omega-3 fish oils are still the leading buyers with the big fish feed companies such as Ewos, Skretting and Biomar in the lead.

Production

In 2005, fish oil production declined in all main producing countries with the exception of Iceland. The 2005 production estimate is about 570 000 tonnes in the five main exporting countries (Peru, Denmark, Chile, Iceland and Norway), a 12% decline from the 650 000 tonnes produced in 2004.

Peru continues to be the main fish oil producer worldwide, with about one fourth of total fish oil production. Though Peruvian catches of fish destined for reduction in 2005 were more or less in line with the 2004 result, fish oil production declined from 350 000 tonnes to 290 000 tonnes, due to lower fat content of the fish. In the recent summer months, the fat content was as low as 2% which compares to 4% in 2004. Despite an 18% decline in production, Peruvian earnings from fish oil exports reached 156 million US$ in 2005, exceeding the 2004 income by 6 million US$. This was due to the impressive increase in fish oil prices.

Benefits

Some experts^[6] believe that taking fish oil (in any form) can help regulate cholesterol in the body, because fish oil has high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. The regulation occurs through effects of the EPA and DHA constituents on Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα). Besides cholesterol regulation, benefits include anti-inflammatory properties and positive effects on body composition. However, the preferred source of omega-3 should be from the fish's body, not the liver. The liver and liver products (such as cod liver oil) of fish and many animals (such as seals and whales) contain omega-3, but also the active form of vitamin A. At high levels, this form of the vitamin can be dangerous. Early explorers to the land of the Inuit were given raw liver by the natives, which contained a toxic overdose of vitamin A for the white explorers; however, the same amount was harmless to the Inuit, who had no other source of Vitamin A except animal livers.^{[citation needed]} Studies^[7][8] were conducted on prisoners in England where the inmates were fed seafood which contains omega-3 fatty acids. The higher consumption of these fatty acids corresponded with a drop in the assault rates. Another Finnish study found that prisoners who were convicted of violence had lower levels of omega–3 fatty acids than prisoners convicted of nonviolent offenses. It was suggested that these kinds of fatty acids are responsible for the neuronal growth of the frontal cortex of the brain which, it is further alleged, is the seat of personal behavior.

Recent studies have suggested that fish oil may reduce the risk of depression, and importantly, suicide risk. One such study^[9] took blood samples of 100 suicide-attempt patients and compared the blood samples to those of controls and found that levels of Eicosapentaenoic acid were significantly lower in the washed red blood cells of the suicide-attempt patients. A small American trial, published in 2009, suggests that E-EPA, as monotherapy, might treat major depressive disorder, however the study achieved no statistical significance. ^[10]

A study^[11] examining whether omega-3 exerts neuroprotective action in Parkinson's disease found that it did, using an experimental model, exhibit a protective effect (much like it did for Alzheimer's disease as well). The scientists exposed mice to either a control or a high omega-3 diet from two to twelve months of age and then treated them with a neurotoxin commonly used as an experimental model for Parkinson's. The scientists found that high doses of omega-3 given to the experimental group completely prevented the neurotoxin-induced decrease of dopamine that ordinarily occurs. Since Parkinson's is a disease caused by disruption of the dopamine system, this protective effect exhibited could show promise for future research in the prevention of Parkinson's disease.

According to a study from Louisiana State University in September 2005, fish oil may help protect the brain from cognitive problems associated with Alzheimer's disease.^[12]

A study from the Orygen Research Centre in Melbourne suggests that omega-3 fatty acids could also help delay or prevent the onset of schizophrenia. The researchers enlisted 81 'high risk' young people aged 13 to 24 who had previously suffered brief hallucinations or delusions and gave half of them capsules of fish oil while the other half received fish-tasting dummy subtitute. One year on, only three percent of those on fish oil had developed schizophrenia compared to 28 percent from those on the substitute, but the result has not yet been published in a peer reviewed journal.^[13]

A recent meta-study by the Canadian Medical Association Journal found fish oil supplementation did not demonstrate any preventative benefit to cardiac patients with ventricular arrhythmias.^[14]

See also Coronary heart disease

See also Health benefits of Omega 3 fatty acids

See also Health risks of Omega 3 fatty acids

The American Heart Association recommends the consumption of 1g of fish oil daily, preferably by eating fish, for patients with coronary heart disease.^[15] Note that optimal dosage relates to body weight.

The US National Institutes of Health lists three conditions for which fish oil and other omega-3 sources are most highly recommended: hypertriglyceridemia, secondary cardiovascular disease prevention and high blood pressure. It then lists 27 other conditions for which there is less evidence. It also lists possible safety concerns: "Intake of 3 grams per day or greater of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish oil/omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke."^[16]

Several studies report possible anti-cancer effects of n−3 fatty acids found in fish oil (particularly breast, colon and prostate cancer).^[17][18][19] Omega-3 fatty acids reduced prostate cancer growth, slowed histopathological progression, and increased survival.^[20] Among n-3 fatty acids (omega-3), neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were consistently associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of docosahexaenoic acid, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA (omega-3) in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer.^[21]

References

1. ^ Moghadasian MH (May 2008). "Advances in dietary enrichment with n-3 fatty acids". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 48 (5): 402–10. doi:10.1080/10408390701424303. PMID 18464030. 
2. ^ EPA (2007-01-31). "Fish Consumption Advisories". http://www.epa.gov/mercury/advisories.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-08. 
3. ^ FAO: World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008: Highlights of Special Studies Rome.
4. ^ Jess Halliday (2006-04-13). "Dioxins prompt second UK fish oil withdrawal". http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/news/ng.asp?n=67059-boots-seven-seas-dioxins-fish-oil. Retrieved 2007-02-08. 
5. ^ "Pollutants found in fish oil capsules". 2002-04-06. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1911312.stm. Retrieved 2007-02-08. 
6. ^ Dr. Michael Main interview on heart health on Steve Kraske's Up to Date
7. ^ STEPHEN MIHM (2006-04-16). "Does Eating Salmon Lower the Murder Rate?". NYTimes. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/magazine/16wwln_idealab.html?ex=1302840000&en=42040a1da92a9fe6&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss. Retrieved 2007-02-08. 
8. ^ Gesch CB, Hammond SM, Hampson SE, Eves A, Crowder MJ (2002). "Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behaviour of young adult prisoners. Randomised, placebo-controlled trial". The British Journal of Psychiatry : the journal of mental science 181: 22–8. doi:10.1192/bjp.181.1.22. PMID 12091259. 
9. ^ Huan M, Hamazaki K, Sun Y, Itomura M, Liu H, Kang W, Watanabe S, Terasawa K, Hamazaki T. (2004). "Suicide attempt and n-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cells: a case control study in China". Biological psychiatry 56 (7): 490–6. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.06.028. PMID 1540784. http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/bps/article/PIIS0006322304007061/abstract. 
10. ^ Mischoulon D, Papakostas GI, Dording CM, et al. A double-blind, randomized controlled trial of ethyl-eicosapentaenoate for major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009 Aug 25. [Abstract
11. ^ M. Bousquet, M. Saint-Pierre, C. Julien, N. Salem Jr., F. Cicchetti, and F. Calon (2007). "Beneficial effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid on toxin-induced neuronal degeneration in an animal model of Parkinson’s disease". The Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 22: 1213. doi:10.1096/fj.07-9677com. PMID 18032633. http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/content/abstract/fj.07-9677comv1. 
12. ^ Walter J. Lukiw (2005-06-28). "A role for docosahexaenoic acid–derived neuroprotectin D1 in neural cell survival and Alzheimer disease". J. Clin. Invest 115: 2774–83. doi:10.1172/JCI25420. http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/abstract/115/10/2774. 
13. ^ http://www.smh.com.au/news/National/Fish-oil-might-stop-schizophrenia-study/2007/11/29/1196036990650.html smh.com.au
14. ^ Nair GM, Connolly SJ (January 2008). "Should patients with cardiovascular disease take fish oil?". CMAJ 178 (2): 181–2. doi:10.1503/cmaj.071654. PMID 18195293. PMC 2174997. http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/178/2/181. 
15. ^ "Fish and Omega-3 Fatty Acids". American Heart Association. http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4632. Retrieved 2007-02-09. 
16. ^ NIH Medline Plus. "MedlinePlus Herbs and Supplements: Omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil, alpha-linolenic acid". http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-fishoil.html. Retrieved 2006-02-14. 
17. ^ Augustsson K, Michaud DS, Rimm EB, et al (01 January 2003). "A prospective study of intake of fish and marine fatty acids and prostate cancer". Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 12 (1): 64–7. PMID 12540506. http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12540506. 
18. ^ De Deckere, EA (July 1999). "Possible beneficial effect of fish and fish n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in breast and colorectal cancer". European Journal of Cancer Prevention 8 (3): 213–21. doi:10.1097/00008469-199906000-00009. PMID 10443950. 
19. ^ Caygill, C.P.; Hill, MJ (August 1995). "Fish, n−3 fatty acids and human colorectal and breast cancer mortality". European Journal of Cancer Prevention 4 (4): 329–32. doi:10.1097/00008469-199508000-00008. PMID 7549825. 
20. ^ Berquin IM, Min Y, Wu R, et al (July 2007). "Modulation of prostate cancer genetic risk by omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids". J Clin Invest. 117 (7): 1866–75. doi:10.1172/JCI31494. PMID 17607361. 
21. ^ Valeria Pala, Vittorio Krogh, Paola Muti, Véronique Chajès, Elio Riboli, Andrea Micheli, Mitra Saadatian, Sabina Sieri, Franco Berrino (18 Jul 2001). "Erythrocyte Membrane Fatty Acids and Subsequent Breast Cancer: a Prospective Italian Study". JNCL 93 (14): 1088. doi:10.1093/jnci/93.14.1088. PMID 11459870. http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/93/14/1088. Retrieved 2008-11-30. 

External links

• EPA Fish Consumption Advisories
• International Fish Oil Standards-- An organization concerned with the quality of omega-3 products as it relates to the international standards established by the World Health Organization and the Council For Responsible Nutrition for purity and concentration.
• Joyce A. Nettleton, ed. "PUFA Newsletter". http://www.fatsoflife.com. Retrieved February 20 2006.  Two newsletters, both quarterly, reviewing recent publications in essential fatty acids. One is written for researchers, the second is for consumers. Industry sponsored, academic contributors.
• Clover, Charles (2004). The end of the line: how overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. London: Ebury. ISBN 0-09-189780-7. 

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