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goldenrod

 
Dictionary: gold·en·rod   (gōl'dən-rŏd') pronunciation
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n.
Any of numerous chiefly North American plants of the genus Solidago, having clusters of small yellow flower heads that bloom in late summer or fall.


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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: goldenrod
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Any of the approximately 150 species of weedy, usually perennial, herbaceous plants that make up the genus Solidago, in the aster family (Asteraceae). Most are native to North America; a few grow in Europe and Asia. They have toothed leaves and clustered yellow flower heads composed of both disk and ray flowers. Characteristic plants in eastern North America, they are found almost everywhere — in woodlands, swamps, on mountains, in fields, and along roadsides — and are a prominent feature of autumn from the Great Plains east to the Atlantic. Unlike ragweed, which blooms at the same time, they are not a cause of hay fever.

For more information on goldenrod, visit Britannica.com.

Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia: Goldenrod
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Description

Averaging about 4 ft (1.2 m) in height, goldenrod is a perennial with clusters of bright yellow flowers. It has been used for centuries in the treatment of kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and a variety of other medical conditions. One legend has it that a 10-year-old boy who received an infusion of goldenrod for several months in the late eighteenth century passed 50 gravel stones larger than a pea. Native Americans used goldenrod to alleviate sore throat, and blue mountain tea made from goldenrod leaves is sometimes used to combat fatigue in the Appalachian Mountains. Goldenrod varieties belong to the plant family Asteraceae. While European goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea) is perhaps the most well known variety, other species of the plant (there are over 100 and counting) appear to have roughly equivalent medicinal properties—in particular, the ability to increase the flow of urine. In Europe, Solidago virgaurea is often used interchangeably with other species of goldenrod such as Solidago serotina and Solidago canadensis in the drug of commerce. Only the aboveground parts of the plant, mainly the flowers and leaves, are considered to have medicinal value.

Goldenrod grows in Europe, Asia, northern Africa, and North America, but most medicinal goldenrod originates in Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and other eastern European countries. It thrives in a wide variety of habitats, including hills, woods, meadows, and rocky terrain. Contrary to popular belief, goldenrod does not play a significant role in triggering hay fever reactions. This myth probably developed due to the fact that goldenrod blooms around the same time and in the same places as the ragweed responsible for most seasonal allergies. Studies of goldenrod pollen indicate that it is not a potent allergen for most people. However, it is in some. Goldenrod is also a very potent anti-allergic herb for sufferers of hay fever.

The genus name Solidago is derived from the Latin verb solidare, which can be translated "to make whole." Goldenrod received this appellation due to its reputation through the ages as a wound-healing drug. This also explains why goldenrod has sometimes been referred to as "woundwort" during its long history as a folk remedy. While not valued much today as a wound healer, goldenrod has been approved by the authoritative German Commission E as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic for the treatment of urinary tract disorders. Research suggests that goldenrod can increase the production of urine, which is often helpful in cases of urinary tract infection or kidney stones, without reducing levels of important electrolytes, such as sodium and chloride, the way that some man-made diuretics do. While it is not known exactly how goldenrod produces its therapeutic effects, researchers have focused on several naturally occurring chemicals in the plant. Most experts believe that goldenrod's ability to increase urine production is due to the presence of flavonoids and saponins, which stimulate the kidneys to release fluid. Another chemical in goldenrod, a phenolic glycoside called leiocarposide, may be responsible for goldenrod's anti-inflammatory effects. In one study of Solidago virgaurea involving rodents, researchers from Cairo University found that the anti-inflammatory activity of goldenrod was comparable to that of diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) prescribed for conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. The tannins in goldenrod have been associated with astringent properties. The herb also contains a small amount of essential oil.

General Use

While not yet popular in the United States or approved for use by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), goldenrod is used widely in Europe to treat urinary tract infections and help eliminate kidney or bladder stones. The Commission E has approved goldenrod as flushing-out therapy for inflammatory diseases of the lower urinary tract and for helping to eliminate and prevent stones. Goldenrod is considered useful in treating these disorders for several reasons. The herb can help to eliminate bacteria and stones by increasing the flow of urine and thereby "washing" them out. As an anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic, goldenrod may help to soothe irritated tissue in the urinary tract and prevent muscle spasms.

Goldenrod is not used as a cure for any of these disorders—for example, antibiotics are considered the primary therapy in cases of urinary tract infections—but it can be a helpful component of treatment. In Germany, where goldenrod has government approval as an aid in treating urinary tract disorders, the plant is often combined with java tea leaf, birch leaf, or uva ursi leaf. Compared to other herbal diuretics, goldenrod is considered well tolerated due to its lack of side effects and contraindications.

Throughout its history, goldenrod has been used to treat a variety of other medical problems. These include hemorrhoids, diabetes, tuberculosis, liver enlargement, gout, internal bleeding, diarrhea, asthma, rheumatism, enlarged prostate, infections of the mouth and throat, and external wounds. In the Appalachian Mountain region of the United States, goldenrod leaves have been used to prepare blue mountain tea, which is recommended by folk practitioners there to combat fatigue and physical exhaustion. As of early 2000, sufficient scientific evidence to support these additional uses is lacking.

Preparations

Dosage of goldenrod generally ranges from 6–12 g of cut herb per day. The drug, which is recommended for internal use only, can be taken as a tea, liquid extract, or tincture. No matter which preparation is used, it is important to drink plenty of fluids (6–8 glasses a day) while using goldenrod in order to increase its effectiveness as a diuretic.

Goldenrod tea can be prepared by steeping 3–5 g (1 or 2 teaspoonfuls) of the herb in 150 ml of simmering water. The mixture should be strained after about 15 minutes. Dosage is two to four cups of tea a day, taken between meals. The liquid extract preparation is usually taken two to three times a day in doses of 0.5–2.0 ml. Dosage for the tincture is 0.5–1.0 ml two to three times a day.

Precautions

While self-care measures such as goldenrod may be an effective component of treatment for disorders of the urinary tract, these medical conditions can be serious and require consultation with a doctor. People who suffer from edema due to reduced heart or kidney function should not use goldenrod without medical supervision. Due to lack of sufficient medical study, goldenrod should be used with caution in children, women who are pregnant or breast-feeding, and people with kidney disease. To ensure optimum effectiveness, protect goldenrod from direct sunlight and moisture during storage.

Most studies of goldenrod's effects as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic have been conducted in the test tube or in rodents. Goldenrod's effectiveness in humans is not well demonstrated as of early 2000.

Side Effects

When taken in recommended dosages, goldenrod has not been associated with any significant or bothersome side effects. Allergic reactions may occur in some people.

Interactions

No drugs are known to interact adversely with goldenrod. In Germany, goldenrod has been combined with java tea leaf, birch leaf, and uva ursi leaf without apparent harm.

Resources

Books

Gruenwald, Joerg. PDR for Herbal Medicines. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics, 1998.

Sifton, David W. PDR Family Guide to Natural Medicines and Healing Therapies. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999.

Tyler, Varro E. Herbs of Choice. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, Inc., 1994.

Periodicals

el-Ghazaly, M., M.T. Khayyal, S.N. Okpanyi, et al. "Study of the anti-inflammatory activity of Populus tremula, Solidago virgaurea and Fraxinus excelsior." Arzneimittelforschung 42, no. 3 (1992): 333-6.

Leuschner, J. "Anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic and diuretic effects of a commercially available Solidago gigantea Herb Extract." Arzneimittelforschung 45, no. 2 (1995): 165–8.

Organizations

American Botanical Council. P.O. Box 144345, Austin, TX 78714-4345.

Herb Research Foundation. 1007 Pearl Street, Suite 200, Boulder, CO 80302.

Other

Herb Research Foundation. http://www.herbs.org (January 17, 2001).

OnHealth. http://www.onhealth.com (January 17, 2001).

Discovery Health. http://www.discoveryhealth.com (January 17, 2001).

[Article by: Greg Annussek]

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: goldenrod
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goldenrod, any species of the large genus Solidago of the family Asteraceae (aster family), chiefly North American weedy herbs. They have small yellow flowers clustered, often in panicles, along a wandlike stem. The few species that have white flowers are called silverrod. The goldenrods were, at one time, incorrectly considered a chief cause of hay fever, probably because they bloom in late summer and autumn, at the same time as the less conspicuous ragweeds. Goldenrods attracted short-lived commercial attention when Thomas Edison found that certain species contain latex. Some species (sometimes called dyer's-weed) have yielded a dye, and the leaves of many species have long been used for medicinal preparations and teas, whence the botanical name [Lat. solidare=to make whole]. The goldenrod adds beauty to fields, roadsides, and salt marshes in so many parts of the United States that it has been chosen as the state flower of Alabama, Kentucky, and Nebraska and has even been suggested for the national flower. Goldenrod is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Asterales, family Asteraceae.

Wikipedia: Goldenrod
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For other uses, see Goldenrod (disambiguation).
Goldenrod
Inflorescences of Solidago virgaurea minuta
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Tribe: Astereae
Genus: Solidago
L.
Species

See text.

The goldenrod is a yellow flowering plant in the Family Asteraceae.

Contents

Description

About 100[1] perennial species make up the genus Solidago, most being found in the meadows and pastures, along roads, ditches and waste areas in North America. There are a handful of species from each of Mexico, South America, and Eurasia.[1] Some American species have also been introduced into Europe some 250 years ago.

Many species are difficult to distinguish. Probably due to their bright, golden yellow flower heads blooming in late summer, the goldenrod is often unfairly blamed for causing hay fever in humans. The pollen causing these allergy problems is mainly produced by Ragweed (Ambrosia sp.), blooming at the same time as the goldenrod, but is wind-pollinated. Goldenrod pollen is too heavy and sticky to be blown far from the flowers, and is thus mainly pollinated by insects.[citation needed] Frequent handling of goldenrod and other flowers, however, can cause allergic reactions, leading some florists to change occupation.[2]

Goldenrods are easily recognized by their golden inflorescence with hundreds of small capitula, but some are spike-like and other have auxiliary racemes.

They have slender stems, usually hairless but S. canadensis shows hairs on the upper stem. They can grow to a length between 60 cm and 1.5 m.

Their alternate leaves are linear to lanceolate. Their margins are usually finely to sharply serrated.

Propagation is by wind-disseminated seed or by underground rhizomes. They form patches that are actually vegetative clones of a single plant.

Goldenrod and visiting Cerceris wasp

Use and cultivation

Parts of some goldenrods can be edible when cooked.[3] Goldenrod is also used as a food plant by the larvae of various Lepidoptera species (see list of Lepidoptera that feed on goldenrods). The invading larva induces the plant to form a bulbous tissue mass (called a gall) around it, upon which the larva then feeds. Various parasitoid wasps find these galls and lay eggs in the larvae, penetrating the bulb with their ovipositor. Woodpeckers have adapted to peck open the galls and eat the insect in the center.[4]

Goldenrods can be used for decoration and making tea. Goldenrods are, in some places, held as a sign of good luck or good fortune[citation needed]; but they are considered weeds in others.

Goldenrods are mostly short-day plants and bloom in late summer and early fall and some species produce abundant nectar when moisture is plentiful before bloom, and the bloom period is relatively warm and sunny. Honey from goldenrods often is dark and strong due to admixtures of other nectars. However when there is a strong honey flow, a light (often water white), spicy-tasting honey is produced. While the bees are ripening the honey there is a rank odor and taste, but finished honey is much milder.

Garden use

British gardeners adopted goldenrod long before Americans. Goldenrod only began to gain some acceptance in American gardening (other than wildflower gardening) during the 1980s. A putative hybrid with aster, known as x Solidaster is less unruly, with pale yellow flowers, equally suitable for dried arrangements. Molecular and other evidence points to Solidaster (at least cultivar Lemore) being a hybrid of Solidago ptarmicoides and Solidago canadensis (the former is now placed in Solidago, but is the "aster" of the name, as it has had a checkered taxonomic past).[5]

Solidago canadensis was introduced as a garden plant in Central Europe, and is now common in the wild. In Germany, it is considered an invasive species that displaces native vegetation from its natural habitat.

Goldenrod is a companion plant, playing host to some beneficial insects, and repelling some pests.[citation needed]

Canadian Goldenrod (Solidago canadensis)

Industrial use

Inventor Thomas Edison experimented with goldenrod to produce rubber, which it contains naturally.[6] Edison created a fertilization and cultivation process to maximize the rubber content in each plant. His experiments produced a 12 foot tall plant that yielded as much as 12 percent rubber. The rubber produced through Edison's process was resilient and long lasting. The tires on the Model T given to him by his friend Henry Ford were made from goldenrod. Examples of the rubber can still be found in his laboratory, elastic and rot free after more than 50 years. However, even though Edison turned his research over to the U.S. government a year before his death, goldenrod rubber never went beyond the experimental stage.

Medicinal use

The variety Solidago virgaurea is used as a traditional kidney tonic.[7] It is used by practitioners of herbal medicine as an agent to counter inflammation and irritation of the kidneys when bacterial infection or stones are present.[8] Goldenrod has also been used as part of a tincture to aid in cleansing of the kidney/bladder during a healing fast, in conjunction with Potassium broth and specific juices.[8] 'Solidago odora' is also sold as a medicinal, for these issues: mucus, kidney/bladder cleansing and stones, colds, digestion.

Phytoremediation

Goldenrod is a known hyperaccumulator of aluminium, and as such can be used for phytoremediation.

Cultural significance

The goldenrod is the state flower of the U.S. states of Kentucky (adopted March 16, 1926) and Nebraska (adopted April 4, 1895). It used to be the state flower of Alabama, being adopted as such on September 6, 1927, but was later rejected in favour of the camellia. Goldenrod was recently named the state wildflower for South Carolina.

In Midwestern states in the mid-twentieth century it was said that when the goldenrod bloomed, it would soon be time to go back to school—the blossoms appeared in mid- to late August, shortly before the traditional start of school on the day after Labor Day.[9]

In Sufjan Stevens' song "Casimir Pulaski Day", the narrator brings goldenrod to his girlfriend upon finding out that she has been diagnosed with bone cancer. Carrie Hamby's song "Solidago" tells the story of Thomas Edison's experiments with making goldenrod a domestic source of rubber that ended with the invention of synthetic rubber during WWII.

The Sweet Goldenrod (Solidago odora) is also the state herb of Delaware as of June 24, 1996. [10]

Species

Goldenrods in rural Fountain County, Indiana.
  • Solidago albopilosa E.L. Braun : Whitehair Goldenrod
  • Solidago altiplanities C.& J. Taylor : High Plains Goldenrod
  • Solidago arguta Ait. : Atlantic Goldenrod
    • Solidago arguta. var. arguta : Atlantic Goldenrod
    • Solidago arguta var. boottii (Hook.) Palmer & Steyermark : Boott's Goldenrod
    • Solidago arguta var. caroliniana Gray : Atlantic Goldenrod
    • Solidago arguta var. harrisii (Steele) Cronq. : Harris' Goldenrod
    • Solidago arguta var. neurolepis (Fern.) Steyermark : Atlantic Goldenrod
  • Solidago auriculata Shuttlw. ex Blake : Eared Goldenrod
  • Solidago bicolor L. : White Goldenrod
  • Solidago brachyphylla Chapman : Dixie Goldenrod
  • Solidago buckleyi Torr. & Gray : Buckley's Goldenrod (VU)
  • Solidago caesia L. : Wreath Goldenrod
  • Solidago calcicola Fern. : Limestone Goldenrod
  • Solidago californica Nutt. : California Goldenrod
  • Solidago canadensis L. : Canada Goldenrod, Canadian Goldenrod
  • Solidago cutleri Fern. : Cutler's alpine Goldenrod
  • Solidago deamii Fern. : Deam's Goldenrod
  • Solidago discoidea Ell. : Rayless Mock Goldenrod
  • Solidago fistulosa P. Mill. : Pinebarren Goldenrod
  • Solidago flaccidifolia Small : Mountain Goldenrod
  • Solidago flexicaulis L. : Zigzag Goldenrod
  • Solidago gattingeri Chapman : Gattinger's Goldenrod
  • Solidago gigantea Ait. : Giant Goldenrod
  • Solidago glomerata Michx. : Clustered Goldenrod
  • Solidago gracillima Torr. & Gray : Virginia Goldenrod
  • Solidago guiradonis Gray : Guirado Goldenrod
  • Solidago hispida Muhl. ex Willd. : Hairy Goldenrod
    • Solidago hispida var. arnoglossa Fern. : Hairy Goldenrod
    • Solidago hispida var. hispida : Hairy Goldenrod
    • Solidago hispida var. lanata (Hook.) Fern. : Hairy Goldenrod
    • Solidago hispida var. tonsa Fern. : Hairy Goldenrod
  • Solidago juliae Nesom : Julia's Goldenrod
  • Solidago juncea Ait. : Early Goldenrod
  • Solidago latissimifolia P. Mill. : Elliott's Goldenrod
  • Solidago leavenworthii Torr. & Gray : Leavenworth's Goldenrod
  • Solidago ludoviciana (Gray) Small : Louisiana Goldenrod
  • Solidago macrophylla Pursh : Largeleaf Goldenrod
  • Solidago missouriensis Nutt. : Missouri Goldenrod
    • Solidago missouriensis var. fasciculata Holz. : Missouri Goldenrod
    • Solidago missouriensis var. missouriensis : Missouri Goldenrod
    • Solidago missouriensis var. tenuissima (Woot. & Standl.) C.& J. Taylor : Missouri Goldenrod
Goldenrod achene and galls
    • Solidago missouriensis Nutt. var. tolmieana (Gray) Cronq. : Tolmies' Goldenrod
  • Solidago mollis Bartl. : Velvety Goldenrod
    • Solidago mollis var. angustata Shinners : Velvety Goldenrod
    • Solidago mollis var. mollis : Velvety Goldenrod
  • Solidago multiradiata Ait. : Rocky Mountain Goldenrod, Alpine Goldenrod
    • Solidago multiradiata var. arctica (DC.) Fern. : Arctic Goldenrod
    • Solidago multiradiata var. multiradiata : Rocky Mountain Goldenrod
    • Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Gray : Manyray Goldenrod
  • Solidago nana Nutt. : Baby Goldenrod
  • Solidago nemoralis Ait. : Gray Goldenrod, American Western Goldenrod
    • Solidago nemoralis var. longipetiolata (Mackenzie & Bush) Palmer & Steyermark : Gray Goldenrod
    • Solidago nemoralis var. nemoralis : Gray Goldenrod
  • Solidago odora Ait. : Anise-scented Goldenrod, Sweet Goldenrod
    • Solidago odora var. chapmanii (Gray) Cronq. : Chapman's Goldenrod
    • Solidago odora var. odora : Anise-scented Goldenrod
  • Solidago ouachitensis C.& J. Taylor : Ouachita Mountain Goldenrod
  • Solidago patula Muhl. ex Willd. : Roundleaf Goldenrod
    • Solidago patula var. patula : Roundleaf Goldenrod
    • Solidago patula var. strictula Torr. & Gray : Roundleaf Goldenrod
  • Solidago petiolaris Ait. : Downy Ragged Goldenrod
    • Solidago petiolaris var. angusta (Torr. & Gray) Gray : Downy Ragged Goldenrod
    • Solidago petiolaris var. petiolaris : Downy Ragged Goldenrod
  • Solidago pinetorum Small : Small's Goldenrod
  • Solidago plumosa Small : Plumed Goldenrod
  • Solidago porteri Small : Porter's Goldenrod
  • Solidago puberula Nutt. : Downy Goldenrod (VU)
    • Solidago puberula var. puberula : Downy Goldenrod
    • Solidago puberula var. pulverulenta (Nutt.) Chapman : Downy Goldenrod
  • Solidago pulchra Small : Carolina Goldenrod
  • Solidago radula Nutt. : Western Rough Goldenrod
    • Solidago radula var. laeta (Greene) Fern. : Western Rough Goldenrod
    • Solidago radula var. radula : Western Rough Goldenrod
    • Solidago radula var. stenolepis Fern. : Western Rough Goldenrod
  • Solidago roanensis Porter : Roan Mountain Goldenrod (Endangered)
  • Solidago rugosa P. Mill. : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod, Rough-stemmed Goldenrod
    • Solidago rugosa subsp. aspera (Ait.) Cronq. : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
    • Solidago rugosa subsp. rugosa : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
      • Solidago rugosa subsp. rugosa var. rugosa : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
      • Solidago rugosa subsp. rugosa var. sphagnophila Graves : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
      • Solidago rugosa subsp. rugosa var. villosa (Pursh) Fern. : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
  • Solidago rupestris Raf. : Eock Goldenrod
  • Solidago sciaphila Steele : Shadowy Goldenrod
  • Solidago sempervirens L. : Seaside Goldenrod, Beach Goldenrod
    • Solidago sempervirens var. mexicana (L.) Fern. : Seaside Goldenrod
    • Solidago sempervirens var. sempervirens : Seaside Goldenrod
  • Solidago shortii Torr. & Gray : Short's Goldenrod (Endangered)
  • Solidago simplex Kunth : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
  • Solidago simplex subsp. randii (Porter) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
    • Solidago simplex subsp. randii var. gillmanii (Gray) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
      • Solidago simplex subsp. randii var. monticola (Porter) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
      • Solidago simplex subsp. randii var. ontarioensis (Ringius) Ringius : Ontario Goldenrod
      • Solidago simplex subsp. randii var. racemosa (Greene) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
      • Solidago simplex subsp. randii var. randii (Porter) Kartesz & Gandhi : Rand's Goldenrod
    • Solidago simplex subsp. simplex : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
      • Solidago simplex subsp. simplex var. nana (Gray) Ringius : Dwarf Goldenrod
      • Solidago simplex subsp. simplex var. simplex : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
      • Solidago simplex subsp. simplex var. spathulata (DC.) Cronq. : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
  • Solidago simulans Fern. : Fall Goldenrod
  • Solidago speciosa Nutt. : Showy Goldenrod
    • Solidago speciosa var. erecta (Pursh) MacM. : Showy Goldenrod
    • Solidago speciosa var. jejunifolia (Steele) Cronq. : Showy Goldenrod
    • Solidago speciosa var. pallida Porter :Showy Goldenrod
    • Solidago speciosa var. rigidiuscula Torr. & Gray : Showy Goldenrod
    • Solidago speciosa var. speciosa : Showy Goldenrod
  • Solidago spectabilis (D.C. Eat.) Gray : Nevada Goldenrod
    • Solidago spectabilis var. confinis (Gray) Cronq. : Nevada Goldenrod
    • Solidago spectabilis var. spectabilis : Nevada Goldenrod
  • Solidago spathulata : Mountain Goldenrod
  • Solidago sphacelata Raf. : Autumn Goldenrod
  • Solidago spithamaea M.A. Curtis : Blue Ridge Goldenrod
  • Solidago squarrosa Nutt. : Stout Goldenrod, Big Goldenrod
  • Solidago stricta Ait. : Wand Goldenrod
  • Solidago tortifolia Ell. : Twistleaf Goldenrod
  • Solidago tenuifolia : Slender Goldenrod
  • Solidago uliginosa Nutt. : Bog Goldenrod
    • Solidago uliginosa var. levipes (Fern.) Fern. : Bog Goldenrod
    • Solidago uliginosa var. linoides (Torr. & Gray) Fern. : Bog Goldenrod
    • Solidago uliginosa var. terrae-novae (Torr. & Gray) Fern. : Bog Goldenrod
    • Solidago uliginosa. var. uliginosa : Bog Goldenrod
  • Solidago ulmifolia Muhl. ex Willd. : Elmleaf Goldenrod
    • Solidago ulmifolia var. microphylla Gray : Elmleaf Goldenrod
    • Solidago ulmifolia var. palmeri Cronq. : Palmer's Goldenrod
    • Solidago ulmifolia var. ulmifolia : Elmleaf Goldenrod
  • Solidago velutina DC. : Threenerve Goldenrod
  • Solidago verna M.A. Curtis : Springflowering Goldenrod
  • Solidago virgaurea : Goldenrod, Aaron’s Rod
  • Solidago wrightii Gray : Wright's Goldenrod
    • Solidago wrightii var. adenophora Blake : Wright's Goldenrod
    • Solidago wrightii var. wrightii : Wright's Goldenrod

Natural hybrids

  • Solidago × asperula Desf. (S. rugosa × S. sempervirens)
  • Solidago × beaudryi Boivin (S. rugosa × S. uliginosa)
  • Solidago × erskinei Boivin (S. canadensis × S. sempervirens)
  • Solidago × ovata Friesner (S. sphacelata × S. ulmifolia)
  • Solidago × ulmicaesia Friesner (S. caesia × S. ulmifolia)

References

  1. ^ a b "Solidago". Flora of North America. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=130659. 
  2. ^ De, Jong, Nw; Vermeulen, Am; Gerth, Van, Wijk, R; De, Groot, H (Feb 1998), "Occupational allergy caused by flowers", Allergy 53 (2): 204–9, ISSN 0105-4538, PMID 9534922 
  3. ^ Edibility of Goldenrod
  4. ^ D. A. Shealers, J. P. Snyder, V. C. Dreisbach, D. F. Sunderlin, and J. A. Novak (July 1999). "Foraging patterns of Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) on goldenrod gall insects, a potentially important winter food resource". The American Midland Naturalist 142 (1): 102–109. doi:10.1674/0003-0031(1999)142[0102:FPOEGS]2.0.CO;2. http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1674%2F0003-0031(1999)142%5B0102%3AFPOEGS%5D2.0.CO%3B2. 
  5. ^ Schilling, E.E., J.B. Beck, P.J. Calie, and R.L. Small (2008), "Molecular analysis of Solidaster cv. Lemore, a hybrid goldenrod (Asteraceae)", Journal Botanical Research Institute of Texas 2: 7–18, http://web.utk.edu/~rsmall/Solidaster.pdf 
  6. ^ "Goldenrod Rubber". Time Magazine. December 16, 1929. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881890,00.html. 
  7. ^ Melzig, Mf (November 2004). "Goldenrod--a classical exponent in the urological phytotherapy". Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift (1946) 154 (21-22): 523–7. doi:10.1007/s10354-004-0118-4. ISSN 0043-5341. PMID 15638071. 
  8. ^ a b Campion, Kitty. (1995). Holistic Woman's Herbal - How to Achieve Health and Well-Being at Any Age, ISBN 978-0760710302, "Basic Maintenance", Pg. 65, "Kidney/Bladder tincture" recipe (kidney cleansing); "Self-Monitoring: Genito-Urinary and Breast Health" Pg. 96, "Kidney/Bladder Tonic" tincture recipe (cystitis). Barnes & Noble, Inc.
  9. ^ Donna Cunningham (May 2001). "Goldenrod and Other Essences for School Transitions". Vibration Magazine: The Journal of Vibrational/Flower Essences. http://www.essences.com/vibration/may01/goldenrod.html. 
  10. ^ State Seal, Song and Symbols of Delaware

See also

External links

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Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.  Read more
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