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| History of Sri Lanka | |
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| Kingdom of Ruhuna | |
| Chola occupied Anuradhapura | |
| Polonnaruwa Kingdom | |
| Kingdom of Dambadeniya | |
| Kingdom of Gampola | |
| Kingdom of Raigama | |
| Kingdom of Kotte | |
| Kingdom of Sitawaka | |
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The chronicle records and archaeological discoveries of human beings and their events happened in area known as Sri Lanka is called the History of Sri Lanka. The number of archaeological evidences and chronicles written by Sri Lankans and non-Sri Lankans, exploring the history of more than 10,000 years.
The archaeological discovery of the Balangoda Man providing the evidences of a 30,000 years past civilization and with the famous chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Mahawansa, the Dipavamsa, the Culavamsa and the Rajaveliya which has the recorded Sri Lankan history from the beginnings of the Sinhalese monarchy in the 6th century BC to the arrival of European Colonialists in the sixteenth century, up until the disestablishment of the monarchy in 1815. There are some historical records about the country aslo included in the famous Indian chronicles of sage Valmiki's Ramayana, Mahabharata and the ancient books of Gautama Buddha's teachings.
The period after sixteenth century, some coastal areas of the country was ruled by the Portuguese, Dutch and British. After the year 1815 the entire nation was ruled by the British Colonialists until the political independence granted in 1948 and becomes a sovereign state after 1972. The Sri Lankan people's armed uprisings happened against the British colonial rule in 1818 Uva Rebellion and in 1848 Matale Rebellion.
The new constitution was introduced in 1978 the Executive President as the head of state, was happened after the armed youth uprising in 1971 known as 1971 April Rebellion. The Sri Lankan Civil War started in 1983 and again another armed youth uprising happened in 1987-89 period and the 26 year civil war ended in year 2009.
The significant cultural changes happened after introducing the Buddhism in 3rd century BC by Arhath Mahinda (was the son of Indian emperor Ashoka the Great), after sixteenth century arrival of European Colonialists and after 1977 the new open economic policies also changed the cultural values in the country.
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Prehistoric Sri Lanka
The earliest archaeological evidence of human colonization in Sri Lanka appears at the site of Balangoda. These Balangoda people arrived on the island about 34,000 years ago and are identified as Mesolithic hunter gatherers who lived in caves. Several of these caves including the well known Batadombalena and the Fa-Hien Rock cave) have yielded many artifacts from these people, currently the first known inhabitants of the island.
The Sandakelum people probably created Horton Plains, in the central hills, by burning the trees in order to catch game. However, the discovery of oats and barley on the plains at about 15,000 BC suggests that agriculture had already developed at this eary date.[1]
Several minute granite tools, (about 4 centimetres in length), earthenware, remnants of charred timber, and clay burial pots date to the Mesolithic stone age. Human remains dating to 6000 BC have been discovered during recent excavations around a cave at Varana Raja Maha vihara and in Kalatuwawa area.
Cinnamon, which is native to Sri Lanka, has been found in Ancient Egypt as early as 1500 BC, suggesting early trade between Egypt and the island's inhabitants. It is possible that Biblical Tarshish was located on the island. (James Emerson Tennent identified Sri Lanka with Galle).[2]
Archaeological evidence for the beginnings of the Iron age in Sri Lanka is found at Anuradhapura, where a large city–settlement was founded before 900 BC. The settlement was about 15 hectares in 900 BC, but by 700 BC it had expanded to 50 hectares.[3] A similar site from the same period has also been discovered near Aligala in Sigiriya.[4]
The hunter-gatherer people known as the Wanniyala-Aetto or Veddas, (who still live in the central, Uva and north-eastern parts of the island), are probably direct descendants of the first inhabitants (Balangoda man). They may have migrated to the island from the mainland around the time humans spread from Africa to the Indian subcontinent.
Around 500 BC, Sri Lankans (archaeological phase?, Cultural/Linguistic Identity?) developed a unique hydraulic civilization. Achievements include the construction of the largest reservoirs and dams of the ancient world as well as enormous pyramid-like Stupa (Dagoba) architecture. This phase of Sri Lankan culture was profoundly influenced by early Buddhism.
Around 400 BC, Indo-Aryan peoples emigrated from India, mixed with the Hela people and later Buddhism was established to create the Sinhalese culture in Sri Lanka. Buddhist scriptures note three visits by the Buddha to the island to see the Naga Kings, who are said to be snakes that can take the form of human at will. The kings are though to be symbolic and not based on historical fact.[1]
More than 70% of the current Sinhalese populace identify themselves as Buddhist. By contrast most of the current Tamil populace identify themselves as Hindu.
The earliest surviving chronicles from the island, the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, say that tribes of Yakkhas (demon worshippers), Nagas (cobra worshippers) and devas (god worshippers) inhabited the island prior to the migration of Vijaya.
Pottery has been found at Anuradhapura, bearing Brahmi script and non-Brahmi writing, dating back to 600 BC – one of the oldest examples of the script.[2]
Ancient Sri Lanka
Pali Chronicles and the arrival of Vijaya
The Pali chronicles, the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Thupavamsa[3] and the Chulavamsa as well as a large collection of stone inscriptions,[4] the Indian Epigraphical records, the Burmese versions of the chronicles etc., provide an exceptional record for the history of Sri Lanka from about the 6th century B.C.
The Mahavamsa, written around 400 AD by the monk Nagasena, using the Deepavamsa, the Attakatha and other written sources available to him, correlates well with Indian histories of the period. Indeed Emperor Asoka's reign is recorded in the Mahavamsa. The Mahavamsa account of the period prior to Asoka's coronation, (218 years after the Buddha's death) seems to be part legend. History proper begins with the arrival of Vijaya and his 700 followers. Vijaya, is a Kalinga(ancient Orissa) prince, the eldest son of King Sinhabahu ("Man with Lion arms") and his sister Queen Sinhasivali. Both these Sinhala leaders were born of a mythical union between a lion and a human princess. The Mahavamsa claims that Vijaya landed on the same day as the death of the Buddha (See Geiger's preface to Mahavamsa). The story of Vijaya and Kuveni (the local reigning queen) is reminiscent of Greek legend, and may have a common source in ancient Proto-Indo-European folk tales.[5]
According to the Mahavamsa, Vijaya landed on Sri Lanka near Mahathitha (Manthota or Mannar[6]), and named the Island "Thambaparni" ('copper-colored palms). This name is attested in Ptolemy's map of the ancient world.
Tamirabharani is the old name for the second longest river in Sri Lanka (known as Malwatu Oya in Sinhala and Aruvi Aru in Tamil). This river was a main supply route connecting the capital, Anuradhapura to Mahathitha (Mannar). The waterway was used by Greek and by Chinese ships travelling the southern Silk Route.
Mahathitha was an ancient port linking Sri Lanka to India and the Persian gulf,[7].
The present day Sihalese (and many modern Tamils) are a mixture of the indegenous people and of other peoples who came to the island from various parts of India. The Sinhalese recognize the Vijayan Indo-Aryan culture and Buddism (already in existence prior to the arrival of Vijaya), as distinct from other groups in neighbouring south India.
Anuradhapura Kingdom
In the early ages of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, Sinhalese economic was based on farming and made their early settlements mainly near the rivers of the east, north central, and north east areas, which supplied the water for farming for the whole year. The king was the ruler of country, the law, the Army and the protector of faith. Devanampiya Tissa (250-210 BC), a Sinhalese King of the Mauriya clan. His links with Emperor Asoka led to the introduction of Buddhism by Mahinda (son of Asoka) in 247? BC. Sangamitta, (sister of Mahinda) brought a Bodhi sapling via Jambukola (Sambiliturei). This king's reign was crucial to Theravada Buddhism, and for Sri Lanka.
Elara (205-161 BC), a Tamil King who ruled "Pihiti Rata", i.e., Sri Lanka north of the mahaweli, after killing King Asela. During Elara's time, Kelani Tissa was a sub-king of Maya Rata (south-west) and Kavan Tissa was a regional sub-king of Ruhuna (south-east). Kavan Tissa built Tissa Maha Vihara, Dighavapi Tank and many shrines in Seruvila. Dutugemunu (161-137 BC) – Eldest son of King Kavan Tissa, who was a young man 25 years of age, defeated the South Indian Tamil Invader Elara (over 64 years of age) in single combat, described in the Mahavamsa. Dutugemunu is depicted as a Sinhala "Asoka". The Ruwanwelisaya, built by this king is a dagaba of pyramid-like proportions. It was an engineering marvel.
Pulahatta (or Pulahatha) deposed by Bahiya, was deposed by Panaya Mara, deposed by Pilaya Mara, murdered by Dathiya 88 BC – deposed by Valagambahu, ending Tamil rule. Valagambahu I (89-77) BC – restored the Dutugamunu dynasty. The Mahavihara Theravada - Abhayagiri (pro-Mahayana) doctrinal disputes arose at this time. The Tripitaka was written in Pali at Aluvihara, Matale. Chora Naga (Mahanaga) (63-51) BC; poisoned by his consort Anula. Queen Anula (48-44 BC) – Widow of Chora Naga and Kuda Tissa, was the first Queen of Lanka. She had many lovers who were poisoned by her. She was finally killed by: Kuttakanna Tissa. Vasabha (67-111 AD) – Vallipuram gold plate; he fortified Anuradhapura and built eleven tanks; many edicts. Gajabahu I (114-136) – invaded the Chola kingdom and brought back captives. He recovered the tooth relic of the Buddha.
Mahasena (274-301) – The Theravada (Maha Vihara) was persecuted and Mahayana surfaced. Later the King returned to the Maha Vihara. Pandu (429) - first of seven Pandiyan rulers, ending with Pithya, 455; Dhatusena (459-477), his uncle, Mahanama wrote the Mahavamsa, he built "Kalaweva". His son Kashyapa (477-495), built the famous sigiriya rock palace. Some 700 rock graffiti give a glimpse of ancient Sinhala.
Kingdom of Ruhuna
The Kingdom of Ruhuna was a kingdom in the south of the island.
Medieval Sri Lanka
Kingdom of Ruhuna
The Kingdom of Ruhuna became the major kingdom on the island after another South Indian invasion by Rajaraja I of the Chola kingdom.
Kingdom of Polonnaruwa
The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa was the second major Sinhalese kingdom of Sri Lanka. It lasted from 1055 under Vijayabahu I to 1212 under the rule of Lilavati. The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa came after the Anuradhapura Kingdom was invaded by Chola forces under Rajaraja I and after the Kingdom of Ruhuna, where the Sinhalese Kings ruled during Chola occupation.
Kingdom of Dambadeniya
Kingdom of Jaffna
Kingdom of Gampola
Kingdom of Kotte
Kingdom of Sitawaka
Kingdom of Kandy
Colonial Sri Lanka
Portuguese era
The first Europeans to visit Sri Lanka in modern times were the Portuguese: Francisco de Almeida arrived in 1505, finding the island divided into seven warring kingdoms and unable to fend off intruders. The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592 the Sinhalese moved their capital to the inland city of Kandy, a location more secure against attack from invaders. Intermittent warfare continued through the 16th century.
Many lowland Sinhalese were forced to convert to Christianity while the coastal Moors were religiously persecuted and forced to retreat to the Central highlands. The Buddhist majority disliked Portuguese occupation and its influences and welcomed any power who might rescue them. In 1602, therefore, when the Dutch captain Joris van Spilbergen landed, the king of Kandy appealed to him for help.
Dutch era
It was in 1638 that the Dutch attacked in earnest but ended with an agreement(which was disrespected by both parties), and not until 1656 that Colombo fell. By 1660 the Dutch controlled the whole island except the kingdom of Kandy. The Dutch(who were Protestants) persecuted the Catholics(the left over Portuguese setlers) but left the Buddhists, Hindus and Moslems alone. However, they taxed the people far more heavily than the Portuguese had done. A mixed Dutch-Sinhalese people known as Burgher peoples are the legacy of Dutch rule.
In 1659, the British sea captain Robert Knox landed by chance on Sri Lanka and was captured by the king of Kandy. He escaped 19 years later and wrote an account of his stay. This helped to bring the island to the attention of the British.
British rule
During the Napoleonic Wars Great Britain, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796. In 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens the Dutch part of the island was formally ceded to Britain, and became a crown colony. In 1803 the British invaded the Kingdom of Kandy in the 1st Kandyan War, but were bloodily repulsed. In 1815 Kandy was occupied in the 2nd Kandyan War, finally ending Sri Lankan independence.
Following the bloody suppression of the Uva Rebellion, the Kandyan peasantry were stripped of their lands by the Wastelands Ordinance, a modern enclosure movement and reduced to penury. The British found that the uplands of Sri Lanka were very suited to coffee, tea and rubber cultivation, and by the mid 19th century Ceylon tea had become a staple of the British market, bringing great wealth to a small class of white tea planters. To work the estates, the planters imported large numbers of Tamil workers as indentured labourers from south India, who soon made up 10% of the island's population. These workers had to work in slave-like conditions and to live in line rooms, not very different from cattle sheds.
The British colonialists favoured the semi-European Burghers, certain high-caste Sinhalese and the Tamils who were mainly concentrated to the north of the country, exacerbating divisions and enmities which have survived ever since. Nevertheless, the British also introduced democratic elements to Sri Lanka for the first time in its history. The Burghers were given some degree of self-government as early as 1833. It was not until 1909 that constitutional development began with a partly-elected assembly, and not until 1920 that elected members outnumbered official appointees. Universal suffrage was introduced in 1931, over the protests of the Sinhalese, Tamil and Burgher elite who objected to the common people being allowed to vote [5], [6][7].
Independence movement
Ceylon National Congress (CNC) was founded to agitate for greater autonomy. The party soon split along ethnic and caste lines. Historian K. M. de Silva has stated that the refusal of the Ceylon Tamils to accept minority status to be one of the main causes which broke up the Ceylon National congress.[8] The CNC did not seek independence or "Swaraj". What may be called the independence movement broke into two streams, viz., the "constitutionalists", who sought independence by gradual modification of the status of Ceylon, and the more radical groups associated with the Colombo Youth League, Labour movement of Goonasinghe, and the Jaffna Youth Congress. These organizations were the first to raise the cry of Swaraj, or outright independence, following the Indian example, when Nehru, Sarojini Naidu and other Indian leaders visited Ceylon in 1926.[9] The efforts of the constitutionalists led to the arrival of the Donoughmore Commission reforms (1931) and the Soulbury Commission recommendations, which essentially upheld the 1944 draft constitution of the Board of ministers headed by D. S. Senanayake.[8][9] The Marxist Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), which grew out of the Youth Leagues in 1935, made the demand for outright independence a corner stone of their policy[8] Its deputies in the State Council, N.M. Perera and Philip Gunawardena, were aided in this struggle by other less radical members like Natesa Iyer and Don Alwin Rajapaksa. They also demanded the replacement of English as the official language by Sinhala and Tamil. The Marxist groups were a tiny minority and yet their movement was viewed with grave suspicion by the British administration. The heroic (but ineffctive) attempts to rouse the public against the British Raj in revolt would have led to certain bloodshed and a delay in independence. British state papers released in the 1950s show that the Marxist movement had a very negative impact on the policy makers at the Colonial office.
The Soulbury Commission was the most important result of the agitation for constitutional reform in the 1930s. The Tamil organization was by then led by G. G. Ponnambalam who had rejected the "Ceylonese identity".[10] Ponnamblam had declared himself a "proud Dravidian", and proclaimed an independent identity for the Tamils. He attacked the Sinhalese, and criticized their historical chronicle known as the Mahavamsa. One such conflict[specify] in Navalapitiya led to the first Sinhala-Tamil riot in 1939.[9][11] Ponnambalam opposed universal franchise, supported the caste system, and claimed that the protection of Tamil rights requires the Tamils (15% of the population in 1931) having an equal number of seats in parliament to that of the Sinhalese (~72% of the population). This "50-50" or "balanced representation" policy became the hall mark of Tamil politics of the time. Ponnambalam also accused the British of having established colonization in "traditional Tamil areas", and having favoured the Buddhists by the buddhist temporalities act. The Soulbury Commission rejected these submissions by Ponnambalam, and even criticized what they described as their unacceptable communal character[clarification needed]. Sinhalese writers pointed out the large immigration of Tamils to the southern urban centers, especially after the opening of the Jaffna-Colombo railway. Meanwhile, Senanayake, Baron Jayatilleke, Oliver Gunatilleke and others lobbied the Soulbury Commission without confronting them officially. The unoffcial submissions contained what was to later become the draft constitution of 1944.[9]
The close collaboration of the D. S. Senanayake government with the war-time British administration led to the support of Lord Louis Mountbatten. His dispatches and a telegram to the Colonial office supporting Independence for Ceylon have been cited by historians as having helped the Senanayake government to secure the independence of Sri Lanka. The shrewd cooperation with the British as well as diverting the needs of the war market to Ceylonese markets as a supply point, managed by Oliver Goonatilleke, also led to a very favourable fiscal situation for the newly independent government.
Second World War
During World War II, Sri Lanka was a front-line British base against the Japanese. Opposition to the war in Sri Lanka was led by Marxist organizations. The leaders of the LSSP pro-independence agitation were arrested by the Colonial authorities. On 5 April 1942, The Japanese Navy bombed Colombo, which led to the flight of Indian merchants, dominant in the Colombo commercial sector. This flight removed a major political problem faceing the Senanayake government.[9] Marxist leaders also escaped, to India, where they participated in the independence struggle there. The movement in Ceylon was minuscule, limited to the English educated intelligentsia and trade unions, mainly in the urban centers. These groups were led by Robert Gunawardena, Philip's brother. In stark contrast to this "heroic" but ineffective approach to the war, the Senanayake government took advantage of the war to further its rapport with the commanding elite. Ceylon became crucial to the British Empire in the war, with Lord Louis Mountbatten using Colombo as his headquarters for the Eastern Theater. Oliver Goonatilleka successfully exploited the markets for the country's rubber and other agricultural products to replenish the treasury. Nonetheless, Sinhalese continued to agitate for independence and Sinhalese sovereignty, using the opportunities offered by the war to establish a special relationship with Britain.
Meanwhile, the Marxists, identifying the war as an imperialist sideshow and desiring a proletarian revolution, chose a path of agitation disproportionate to their negligible combat strength, and diametrically opposed to the "constitutionalist" approach of Senanayake and other Ethnic Sinhalese leaders. A small garrison on the Cocos Islands, manned by Ceylonese, asttempted to cast off the British yoke. It has been claimed that the LSSP had some hand in the action, though this is far from clear. Three of the participants were the only British Subject Peoples to be shot for "mutiny" during the World War II[9]. Two members of the Governing Party, Junius Richard Jayawardene and Dudley Senanayake held discussions with the Japanese to collaborate in liberating the island from British colonialism.
Sri Lankans in Singapore and Malaysia formed the 'Lanka Regiment' of the (pro/anti Colonial?) Indian National Army.
The constitutionalists, led by D. S. Senanayake, succeeded in winning independence. The Soulbury constitution was essentially what Senanayake's board of ministers had drafted in 1944. The promise of Dominion status, and independence itself, had been given by the Colonial office.
Post war
The Sinhalese leader Don Stephen Senanayake left the CNC on the issue of independence, disagreeing with the revised aim of 'the achieving of freedom', although his real reasons were more subtle [10]. He subsequently formed the United National Party (UNP) in 1946[11], when a new constitution was agreed on, based on the behind-the -curtain lobbying of the Soulbury commission. At the elections of 1947, the UNP won a minority of the seats in Parliament, but cobbled together a coalition with the Sinhala Maha Sabha of Solomon Bandaranaike and the Tamil Congress of G.G. Ponnambalam. The successful inclusions of the Tamil-communalist leader Ponnambalam, and his Sinhala counterpart Bandaranaike were a remarkable political balancing act by Senanayake. However, the vacuum in Tamil Nationalist politics created by Ponnamblam's transition to a moderate opened the field for the Tamil Arasu Kachchi, a Tamil soverignist party (renderd into English as the "Federal" party) led by S. J. V. Chelvanaykam, the lawyer son of a Christian minister.
Twentieth century Sri Lanka
Independence
Dominion status, raised to independence itself followed on 4 February 1948, with military treaties with Britain (the upper ranks of the armed forces were initially British) and British air and sea bases remaining intact. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. In 1949, with the concurrence of the leaders of the Ceylon Tamils, the UNP government disenfranchised the Indian Tamil plantation workers.[9][12] This was the price that Senanayake had to pay, to obtain the support of the Kandyan Sinhalese who felt threatened by the demographics of the tea estates, where the inclusion of the "Indian Tamils" would have meant electoral defeat for the Kandyan leaders. Senanayke died in 1952 after falling from a horse. He was succeeded by his son Dudley Senanayake, the minister of Agriculture. However, in 1953 - following a massive general strike or 'Hartal' by the Left parties against the UNP, Dudley Senanayake resigned. He was followed by John Kotelawala, a senior politician and an uncle of Dudley. Kotelawala did not have the enormous personal prestige or the adroit political acumen of D. S. Senanayake [12]. He brought to the fore, the issue of national languages that D. S. Senanayake had adroitly kept on the back burner. He antagonized the Tamils and the Sinhalese by stating conflicting policies with regard to the status of Sinhala and Tamil as official languages. He also antagonized the Buddhist lobby by attacking politically active Buddhist Monks who were Bandaranaike's supporters.
Republic (1970 to 2009)
Under Bandaranaike the country became a republic, the Free Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka,[13] the Senate was abolished and Sinhala was established as the official language (with Tamil as a second language). Full independence came as the last remaining ties of subjection to the UK were broken (e.g., the Privy Council was no longer a body of appeal above the Supreme Court). Clonial plantations were nationalised to fulfil the election pledges of the Marxist program and to "prevent the ongoing dis-investment by the owning companies".
New constitution
By 1977 the voters were tired of Bandaranaike's socialist policies and elections returned the UNP to power under Junius Jayewardene on a manifesto pledging a market economy and "a free ration of 8 seers (kilograms) of cereals". The SLFP and the left-wing parties were virtually wiped out in Parliament (although they garnered 40% of the popular vote), leaving the Tamil United Liberation Front, led by Appapillai Amirthalingam, as the official opposition. This created a dangerous ethnic cleavage in Sri Lankan politics.
Civil war (1983 to 2009)
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In July 1983 communal riots took place due to the ambush and killing of 13 Sri Lankan Army soldiers by the Tamil Tigers. Using the voters list which contained the exact addresses of Tamils, the Tamil community faced a backlash from Sinhalese rioters including the destruction of shops, homes and savage beatings. However, quite a few Sinhalese kept Tamil neighbours in their homes to protect them from the rioters. During these riots the government did nothing to control the mob. Conservative government estimates put the death toll at 400[13], while the real death toll is believed to be around 3000[14]. Also around 18,000 Tamil homes and 5,000 homes were destroyed, with 150,000 leaving the country resulting in a Tamil Diaspora in Canada, UK, Australia and other western countries.
In elections held on 17 November 2005, Mahinda Rajapakse, the son of Don Alwin Rajapaksa, was elected President, defeating Wickremasinghe. He appointed Ratnasiri Wickremanayake Prime Minister and Mangala Samaraweera Foreign Minister. Negotiations with the LTTE stalled and low-intensity conflict began. The violence dipped off after talks in February, but escalated in April and the conflict continued until the military defeat of the LTTE in May 2009.
Defeat of the LTTE
The Sri Lankan government declared total victory on Monday, 18 May 2009. On 19 May 2009, the Sri Lankan military effectively concluded its 26 year operation against the LTTE.Its military forces recaptured all remaining LTTE controlled territories in the Northern Province, including notably Killinochchi (2 January), the Elephant Pass (9 January) and the ultimately the entire district of Mullaitivu.
This time period defence minister is hon.Maithripala sirisena On 22 May 2009, Sri Lankan Defence Secretary Gotabhaya Rajapaksa confirmed that 6,261 personnel of the Sri Lankan Armed Forces had lost their lives and 29,551 were wounded during Eelam War IV since July 2006. Brig. Udaya Nanayakkara added that approximately 22,000 LTTE cadres had died during this time. Later the LTTE admitted Prabhakaran's death and accepted defeat.
Post conflict Sri Lanka
See also
- Mahawamsa
- Irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka
- Ancient Constructions of Sri Lanka
- Architecture of ancient Sri Lanka
References
- ^ Ranwella, K (05 - 18 June 2000). "THE SO-CALLED TAMIL KINGDOM OF JAFFNA". http://www.spur.asn.au/naga.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
- ^ Pichumani, K; T S Subramanian, S U Deraniyagala (05 - 18 June 2004). "Prehistoric basis for the rise of civilisation in Sri Lanka and southern India". Frontline 21 (12). http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/prehistory.htm. Retrieved 09-08-2008.
- ^ Geiger-Bode translation of the Mahavamsa
- ^ Paranavithana Epigraphics Zeylanica
- ^ Indo-European Folk-Tales and Greek Legend by W. R. Halliday
- ^ see place names
- ^ S. Kiribamuna, "The role of the Port city of Mahathathitha in the Trade networks of the Indian Ocean", in "Reflections on a Heritage", Part I 2000
- ^ a b K. M. de Silva, University of Ceylon History of Ceylon, p. 225
- ^ a b c d e f Dr. Jane Russell, Communal Politics under the Donoughmore constitution. Tsiisara Prakasakyo, Dehivala, 1982
- ^ Hansard 1935
- ^ Hindu Organ, November 1, 1939
- ^ Welcome to UTHR, Sri Lanka
- ^ K. M. de Silva, History of Sri Lanka, Penguin 1995, ch. 37
Books and magazines
- Arsecularatne, S. N, Sinhalese immigrants in Malaysia & Singapore, 1860-1990: History through recollections, Colombo, KVG de Silva & Sons, 1991
- Brohier, R. L, The Golden Age of Military Adventure in Ceylon: an account of the Uva Rebellion 1817-1818. Colombo: 1933
- Crusz, Noel, The Cocos Islands Mutiny. Fremantle Arts Centre Press, Fremantle, WA, 2001
- Deraniyagala, Siran, The Prehistory of Sri Lanka; an ecological perspective. (revised ed.), Colombo: Archaeological Survey Department of Sri Lanka, 1992
- Liyanagamage, Amaradasa, The decline of Polonnaruwa and the rise of Dambadeniya. Department of Cultural Affairs, Government Press, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 1968.
- Pieris, Paulus Edward, Ceylon and Hollanders 1658-1796. American Ceylon Mission Press, 1918.
- Pieris, Paulus Edward, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658. American Ceylon Mission Press, 1920.
- William Adair Nelson and R. Kumar de Silva, The Dutch Forts of Sri Lanka. Reprint: Sri Lanka - Netherlands Association, Colombo, 2004 (First ed. in 1984)
- R. Kumar de Silva and Willemina G. M. Beumer, Illustrations and Views of Dutch Ceylon, 1602-1796. Serendib Publications, London, 1988.
External links
- Nearly 1200 links on Sri Lanka
- The Virtual Motherland of Sri Lankans
- Sri Lanka in 1942 - World War II Movie Clip
- Library of Congress Country Study: Sri Lanka
- The Netherlands - Ceylon Heritage
- Colombo in Dutch Times
- Jacob Haafner. Travels Through The Island of Ceylon in 1783
- The Dutch in Ceylon glimpse of their life and times
- The Journal of the Dutch Burgher Union of Ceylon
- A Baptism of Fire: The Van Goens Mission to Ceylon and India, 1653-54
- 1694 Census in Jaffnapatnam City and Castle
- Dutch and Portuguese Buildings in Sri Lanka
- Tourist Board of Sri Lanka
- hWeb - Sri Lanka’s recent history of ethnic conflict originates from its colonial legacy
- Books on Sri Lanka History
- Maritime Heritage in Sri Lanka
- The Mahavamsa History of Sri Lanka The Great Chronicle of Sri Lanka
- Peace and Conflict Timeline (PACT) - interactive timeline of the Sri Lankan conflict
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