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This article covers the history of the Philippines from the recognition of independence in 1946 to the end of the presidency of Diosdado Macapagal.
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Philippine independence
Philippine declaration of independence (1898)
On June 12, 1898, prior to the formal conclusion of the Spanish-American war, Filipino revolutionary forces under General Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed the sovereignty and independence of the Philippine Islands from the colonial rule of Spain. The declaration, however, was not recognized by the United States or Spain, and was not generally recognized by other nations. The Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, in consideration for an indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets loss.
American recognition of independence (1946)
On July 4, 1946, representatives of the United States of America and of the Republic of the Philippines signed a Treaty of General relations between the two governments. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946, and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.[1]
Filipino historians point out that independence in 1946 came with numerous strings attached. The U.S. retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones, and independence was linked to legislation passed by the U.S. Congress that was designed to ensure that the Philippines would remain an economic ward of the U.S., for the time being.
For example, the Bell Trade Act prohibited the Philippines from manufacturing or selling any products that might "come into substantial competition" with U.S.-made goods, and it required that the Philippine constitution be revised to grant U.S. citizens and corporations equal access to Philippine minerals, forests, and other natural resources. In hearings before the Senate Committee on Finance, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs William L. Clayton described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence."[2]
But the Philippines had little choice but to accept these terms for independence. The U.S. Congress was threatening to withhold post-World War II rebuilding funds unless the Bell Act was ratified. The Philippine Congress obliged on July 2, 1946.
The Philippines celebrates its Independence Day in recognition of June 12, 1898, when the Philippines declared its independence from Spain, although its independence was only recognized on July 4, 1946, by the United States. From 1946 to 1961, Independence Day was observed on July 4 each year, but then President Diosdado Macapagal, upon the advice of some historians, reverted to the June 12 date, which up to that time had been observed as Flag Day in the Philippines. In place of the old Independence Day, President Macapagal created Filipino-American Friendship Day on July 4.
Quotes
| “ | "When I next realized that the Philippines had dropped into our laps I confess I did not know what to do with them... And one night late it came to me this way... 1) That we could not give them back to Spain- that would be cowardly and dishonorable; 2) that we could not turn them over to France and Germany - our commercial rivals in the Orient - that would be bad business and discreditable; 3) that we not leave them to themselves - they are unfit for self-government - and they would soon have anarchy and misrule over there worse than Spain's wars; and 4) that there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them, and by God's grace do the very best we could by them, as our fellow-men for whom Christ also died."—U.S.President William McKinley.[3] | ” |
| “ | "Imperialism is the policy of an empire, and an empire is a nation composed of different races living under varying forms of government. A republic cannot be an empire, for a republic rests upon the theory that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed, and colonialism violate this theory….Our experiment in colonialism has been unfortunate. Instead of profit it has brought loss. Instead of strength it has brought weakness. Instead of glory it has brought humiliation."—1908 U.S. Presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan[4] | ” |
| “ | "‘Destiny’ is not as manifest as it was a few weeks ago."[5]
William Jennings Bryan speaking at the start of the Philippine-American War |
” |
Roxas Administration (1946-1948)
When the Congress of the Philippines was convened in 1945, the legislators elected in 1941 chose Roxas as Senate President. In the Philippine national elections of 1946, Roxas ran for president as the nominee of the liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party. He had the staunch support of General MacArthur. His opponent was Sergio Osmeña, who refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew his reputation. However, in the April 23, 1946 election, Roxas won 54 percent of the vote, and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature. When the Philippines gained independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, he became the first president of the new republic.
Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from the United States after independence, he was forced to concede military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years), trade restriction for the Philippine citizens, and special privileges for U.S. property owner and investor. His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing Hukbalahap (Huk) movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread peasant disaffection.
Roxas did not stay long in office because of heart attack upon a speech in an occassion in the Clark Air Base in April 15, 1948 and was succeeded by his vice president Elpidio Quirino[6].
Quirino Administration (1948-1953)
Quirino assumed the presidency on April 17, 1948, taking his oath of office two days after the death of Manuel Roxas. The next year, he was elected president on his own right for a four-year term as the candidate of the Liberal Party, defeating Jose P. Laurel of the Nacionalista Party.
Since Quirino was a widower, his surviving daughter Vicky would serve as the official hostess and perform the functions traditionally ascribed to the First Lady.
Quirino's administration faced a serious threat in the form of the communist HUKBALAHAP movement. Though the Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese guerrilla army in Luzon, communists steadily gained control over the leadership, and when Quirino's negotiation with Huk commander Luis Taruc broke down in 1948, Taruc openly declared himself a Communist and called for the overthrow of the government.
His six years as president were marked by notable postwar reconstruction, general economic gains, and increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social problems, however, particularly in the rural areas, remained unsolved, and his administration was tainted by widespread graft and corruption.
In 1950, the administration of president Quirino was beginning the Korean War and over 7,450 Filipino soldiers were sent to Korea under the designation of the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea or PEFTOK.
Although ill, Quirino ran for re-election in 1953, but he was overwhelmingly defeated by Ramon Magsaysay.
Magsaysay Administration (1953-1957)
In the Election of 1953, Magsaysay was decisively elected president over the incumbent Elpidio Quirino. He was sworn into office wearing the Barong Tagalog, a first by a Philippine president.
As president, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman against communism during the Cold War. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in South East Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific. During his term, he made Malacañáng Palace literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public.
One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippines Air Force (PAF). President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight.
On March 16, 1957 Magsaysay left Manila for Cebu City where he spoke at three educational institutions. That same night, at about 1 a.m., he boarded the presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo", a C-47, heading back to Manila. In the early morning hours of March 17, his plane was reported missing. It was late in the afternoon that day that newspapers reported that the airplane had crashed on Mt. Manunggal in Cebu and that 25 of the 26 passengers and crew aboard were killed. Only newspaperman Néstor Mata survived. Vice President Carlos P. García, who was on an official visit to Australia at the time, assumed the presidency to serve out the last eight months of Magsaysay's term.
An estimated 2 million people attended Magsaysay's burial on March 22, 1957.[7][8][9]
Garcia Administration (1957-1961)
He assumed the presidency after Ramón Magsaysay died in a plane crash on March 17, 1957, and was elected later the same year, in the Election 1957, to a full term.
During his administration, he acted on the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement which shortened the lease of the US Bases from 99 years to 25 years and made it renewable after every five years. He also exercised the Filipino First Policy, for which he was known. This policy heavily favored Filipino businessmen over foreign investors. He was also responsible for changes in retail trade which greatly affected the Chinese businessmen in the country. He also made a program focused on thriftiness.
At the end of his second term, he ran for re–election in the Election 1961 in November 1961, but was defeated by Diosdado Macapagal, who served as Vice-President under him, but belonged to the opposing Liberal Party - in the Philippines the President and the Vice-President are elected separately.
Macapagal Administration (1961-1965)
In the 1961 presidential election, Macapagal ran against Garcia and defeated the incumbent president by a 55% to 45% margin. Seeking to stimulate economic development, Macapagal took the advice of supporters and allowed the Philippine peso to float on the free currency exchange market. His reform efforts were blocked by the Nacionalistas, who dominated the House of Representatives and the Senate at that time. Nonetheless, and was able to achieve growth and prosperity for the nation.
Among the most significant achievements of Macapagal as president were the abolition of tenancy and accompanying land reform program in the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963. He likewise changed the date of celebration of Philippine independence from July 4 to June 12, the latter date having been the day when in 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence from Spain).
Macapagal was defeated for re-election in 1965 by Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, a former Liberal Party ally who defected to the Nacionalista party to challenge the incumbent President.
References
- ^ (pdf) TREATY OF GENERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES. SIGNED AT MANILA, ON 4 JULY 1946, United Nations, http://untreaty.un.org/unts/1_60000/1/6/00000254.pdf, retrieved 2007-12-10
- ^ Jenkins, Shirley, American Economic Policy Toward the Philippines, Stanford University Press, p. 62, ISBN 0804711399, http://books.google.com/books?id=x4qaAAAAIAAJ
- ^ ed. by Daniel B. Schirmer ...., Daniel B.; Shalom, Stephen Rosskamm (1987), The Philippines Reader, South End Press, pp. 22–23, ISBN 089608275X, http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC
^ Woods, Damon L. (2005), The Philippines, ABC-CLIO, pp. 49–50, ISBN 1851096752, http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C. - ^ Robert McHenry (October 29th, 2008), The ‘08 Campaign, Part II (1908, that is), britannica.com, http://www.britannica.com/blogs/2008/10/the-08-campaign-part-ii/, retrieved 2008-11-11
- ^ McKinley quoted in McDougall, p. 112; Bryan quoted in Weinberg, p. 283.
- ^ Philippine presidents " Manuel A. Roxas, Malacañang Museum.
- ^ Zaide, Gregorio F. (1984). Philippine History and Government. National Bookstore Printing Press.
- ^ Townsend, William Cameron (1952). Biography of President Lázaro Cárdenas. See the SIL International Website at: Establishing the Work in Mexico.
- ^ Carlos P. Romulo and Marvin M. Gray: The Magsaysay Story (The John Day Company, 1956, updated - with an additional chapter on Magsaysay's death - re-edition by Pocket Books, Special Student Edition, SP-18, December 1957)
External links
- PBS Frontline
- Philippine Independence Day Celebration - NYC
- Mutual Defense Treaty Full text of the Mutual Defense Treaty between the Philippines and United States of America.
- Treaty of General Relations Full text of the Treaty of General Relations between the Philippines and United States of America
- The Timeline of Philippine History: Second Independence
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