Hydroplaning

Hydroplaning or aquaplaning by a road vehicle occurs when a layer of water builds between the rubber tires of the vehicle and the road surface, leading to the loss of traction and thus preventing the vehicle from responding to control inputs such as steering, braking or accelerating. It becomes, in effect, an unpowered and unsteered sled.

Hydroplaning also affects aircraft tires in contact with a wet runway and rollercoasters on a wet track.

Contents 1 Causes 1.1 Motorcycles 2 In motor vehicles 2.1 Response 2.2 Recovery 2.3 Prevention by the driver 3 In aircraft 3.1 Types 3.1.1 Viscous 3.1.2 Dynamic 3.1.3 Reverted rubber 3.2 Reducing risk 4 References 5 External links

Causes

Every vehicle function that changes direction or speed, from turning, to accelerating, to braking, places an increased load on the tires. Control of this load relies on the friction between the tires and the road surface. If water comes between the tires and the road, friction may be reduced to the extent that the tires may slip, and the driver may lose control.

The grooves of a rubber tire are designed to disperse water from beneath the tire, providing high friction with the road surface even in wet conditions. Hydroplaning occurs when a tire encounters more water than it can dissipate. Water pressure in front of the wheel forces a wedge of water under the leading edge of the tire, causing it to lift from the road. The tire then skates on a sheet of water with little, if any, direct road contact, and loss of control results. If multiple tires hydroplane, the vehicle may lose directional control and slide until it either collides with an obstacle, or slows enough that one or more tires contact the road again and friction is regained.

The risk of hydroplaning increases with the depth of standing water and the sensitivity of a vehicle to that water depth.^[1][2] Factors that affect water depth include:

• Depth of compacted wheel tracks and longitudinal depressions

  Heavy vehicles can cause ruts in the pavement over time which allow water to pool. The deeper these ruts, the more harm to the pavement's ability to drain water.

• Pavement micro and macrotexture^[3]

  Because of its resistance to local collapse causing ruts and thus allow hydroplaning, concrete is often preferable to hotmix asphalt in this context, though this depends on the age of the surface and the construction techniques employed while paving. The concrete requires special attention to ensure that it has sufficient texture.

• Pavement cross slope and grade

  Cross slope dictates the extent to which the cross-section of a road resembles an upturned U. Higher cross slopes allow water to drain more easily. Grade is the steepness of the road at a particular point, which affects both drainage and the weight of the vehicle. Vehicles are less likely to hydroplane while traveling uphill, and far more likely to do so at the trough of two connected hills where water tends to pool.

• Width of pavement

  Wider roads require a higher cross slope to achieve the same degree of drainage.

• Roadway curvature

• Rainfall intensity and duration

Factors that affect a vehicle's sensitivity to water depth include:

• The driver's speed, acceleration, braking, and steering

• Tire tread wear and contact patch shape

  The longer and thinner the contact patch, the less likely a tire will hydroplane. Tires that present the greatest risk are wide, lightly loaded, and small in diameter. Deeper tread dissipates water more easily.

• Ratio of tire load to inflation pressure

  Underinflated tires are more prone to hydroplaning, especially as vehicle weight increases.

• Vehicle type

  Combination vehicles like semi-trailers are more likely to experience uneven hydroplaning caused by uneven weight distribution. An unloaded trailer will hydroplane sooner than the cab pulling it. Pickups towing RVs present similar problems.

There is no precise equation to determine the speed at which a vehicle will hydroplane. Existing efforts have derived "rules of thumb" from empirical testing in the 1960s and 1970s. In general for cars, hydroplaning can be expected at speeds above 45 MPH (72 km/h), where water ponds to a depth of at least 1/10 of an inch (2,5 mm) over a roadway length of 30 feet (9 meters) or more. With much higher tyre pressures in trucks it is at higher speeds.

Motorcycles

Motorcycles benefit from narrow tires, which are less vulnerable to hydroplaning because vehicle weight is distributed over a smaller rubber contact patch. Tires with a round, canoe-shaped contact patch are similarly effective at pushing water to the sides. The comparatively light weight of most motorcycles counters this advantage, however. Further, because road friction is reduced in wet conditions, the lateral force that any tire can accommodate before sliding is greatly diminished. While a slide in a four-wheeled vehicle is often correctable, the same slide on a motorcycle will generally cause the rider to fall, with severe consequences. Despite the relative lack of hydroplaning danger in wet conditions, motorcycle riders must be even more cautious because overall traction is reduced by wet roadways.

See also traction for effects similar to hydroplaning.

In motor vehicles

Response

What the driver experiences when a vehicle hydroplanes depends on which wheels have lost traction and the direction of travel.

If the vehicle is traveling straight, it may begin to feel slightly loose. If there was a high level of road feel in normal conditions, it may suddenly diminish. Small correctional control inputs have no effect.

If the drive wheels hydroplane, there may be a sudden audible rise in engine RPM and indicated speed as they begin to spin. In a broad highway turn, if the front wheels lose traction, the car will suddenly begin to drift towards the outside of the bend. If the rear wheels lose traction, the back of the car will begin to slew out sideways into a skid. If all four wheels hydroplane at once, the car will slide in a straight line, again towards the outside of the bend if in a turn. When any or all of the wheels regain traction, there may be a sudden jerk in whatever direction that wheel is pointed.

Recovery

To recover while traveling in a straight line, the driver should not turn the steering wheel of the car or apply the brakes. Either action could put the car into a skid from which recovery would be difficult or impossible. Instead, with no change in steering input, the driver should gently ease pressure off the accelerator. Control should then return. If braking is unavoidable, the driver should lightly pump the brakes until hydroplaning has stopped.

If the rear wheels hydroplane and cause oversteer, the driver should steer in the direction of the skid until the rear tires gain traction, and then rapidly steer in the other direction to straighten the car.

Prevention by the driver

The best strategy is to avoid as many contributors to hydroplaning as is possible. Proper tire pressure, narrow and unworn tires, and reduced speeds from those judged suitably moderate in the dry will mitigate the risk of hydroplaning. Avoidance of standing water is another effective prevention strategy.

Electronic stability control systems cannot replace these defensive driving techniques and proper tire selection. They rely on the same braking mechanism at the driver's disposal, which in turn depends on road contact. While stability control may help recovery from a skid when the vehicle slows enough to regain traction, it cannot prevent hydroplaning.

In aircraft

Hydroplaning may reduce the effectiveness of wheel braking in aircraft on landing or aborting a take-off, when it can cause the aircraft to run off the end of the runway. Hydroplaning was a factor in an accident to Qantas Flight 1 when it ran off the end of the runway in Bangkok in 1999 during heavy rain. Aircraft which can employ reverse thrust braking have the advantage over road vehicles in such situations, as this type of braking is not affected by hydroplaning, but it requires a considerable distance to operate as it is not as effective as wheel braking on a dry runway.

Hydroplaning is a condition that can exist when an aircraft is landed on a runway surface contaminated with standing water, slush, and/or wet snow. Hydroplaning can have serious adverse effects on ground controllability and braking efficiency. The three basic types of hydroplaning are dynamic hydroplaning, reverted rubber hydroplaning, and viscous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can render an aircraft partially or totally uncontrollable anytime during the landing roll.

However this can be prevented by grooves on runways. This was initially developed by NASA for space shuttles landing in heavy rain. It has since been adopted by most major airports around the world. Thin grooves are cut in the concrete which allows for water to be dissipated and further reduces the potential to hydroplane.

Types

Viscous

Viscous hydroplaning is due to the viscous properties of water. A thin film of fluid no more than 0.025 millimetres^[4] in depth is all that is needed. The tire cannot penetrate the fluid and the tire rolls on top of the film. This can occur at a much lower speed than dynamic hydroplane, but requires a smooth or smooth-acting surface such as asphalt or a touchdown area coated with the accumulated rubber of past landings. Such a surface can have the same friction coefficient as wet ice.

Dynamic

Dynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speed phenomenon that occurs when there is a film of water on the runway that is at least 0.25 millimetres deep.^[4] As the speed of the aircraft and the depth of the water increase, the water layer builds up an increasing resistance to displacement, resulting in the formation of a wedge of water beneath the tire. At some speed, termed the hydroplaning speed (V_p), the upward force generated by water pressure equals the weight of the aircraft and the tire is lifted off the runway surface. In this condition, the tires no longer contribute to directional control, and braking action is nil. Dynamic hydroplaning is generally related to tire inflation pressure. Tests have shown that for tyres with significant loads and enough water depth for the amount of tread so that the dynamic head pressure from the speed is applied to the whole contact patch, the minimum speed for dynamic hydroplaning (V_p)in knots is about 9 times the square root of the tire pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI).^[4] For an aircraft tire pressure of 64 PSI, the calculated hydroplaning speed would be approximately 72 knots. This speed is for a rolling, non-slipping wheel; a locked wheel reduces the V_p to 7.7 times the square root of the pressure. Therefore, once a locked tire starts hydroplaning it will continue until the speed reduces by other means (air drag or reverse thrust).^[4]

Reverted rubber

Reverted rubber (steam) hydroplaning occurs during heavy braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheel skid. Only a thin film of water on the runway is required to facilitate this type of hydroplaning. The tire skidding generates enough heat to change the water film into a cushion of steam which keeps the tyre off the runway. A side-effect of the heat is it causes the rubber in contact with the runway to revert to its original uncured state, and "steam-cleaned" stretches on the runway.^[4] The reverted rubber acts as a seal between the tire and the runway, and delays water exit from the tire footprint area.^{[clarification needed]}

Reverted rubber hydroplaning frequently follows an encounter with dynamic hydroplaning, during which time the pilot may have the brakes locked in an attempt to slow the aircraft. Eventually the aircraft slows enough to where the tires make contact with the runway surface and the aircraft begins to skid. The remedy for this type of hydroplane is for the pilot to release the brakes and allow the wheels to spin up and apply moderate braking. Reverted rubber hydroplaning is insidious in that the pilot may not know when it begins, and it can persist to very slow groundspeeds (20 knots or less).

Reducing risk

Any hydroplaning tire reduces both braking effectiveness and directional control.^[4]

When confronted with the possibility of hydroplaning, it is best to land on a grooved runway (if available). Touchdown speed should be as slow as possible consistent with safety. After the nosewheel is lowered to the runway, moderate braking should be applied. If deceleration is not detected and hydroplaning is suspected, the nose should be raised and aerodynamic drag utilized to decelerate to a point where the brakes do become effective.^{[clarification needed]}

Proper braking technique is essential. The brakes should be applied firmly until reaching a point just short of a skid. At the first sign of a skid, the pilot should release brake pressure and allow the wheels to spin up. Directional control should be maintained as far as possible with the rudder. Remember that in a crosswind, if hydroplaning should occur, the crosswind will cause the aircraft to simultaneously weathervane into the wind^[4] as well as slide downwind.^{[clarification needed]}

References

Inline

General

• B. N. J. Persson, U. Tartaglino, O. Albohr And E. Tosatti (2004). "Sealing is at the origin of rubber slipping on wet roads". Nature Materials 3 (7 November): 882–885. doi:10.1038/nmat1255. 
• Smart Motorist - Driving in the Rain
• Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA Publication FAA-H-8083-3A, available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov.
• Tire Rack article: Hydroplaning: The Role Tires Play

External links

• Tire Rack article: Hydroplaning: The Role Tires Play
• NASA paper describing hydroplaning.
• Force India - Aquaplaned : Force India - Aquaplaned