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Irish Poor Laws

 
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This former workhouse is located in Dunfanaghy, Donegal.

The Irish Poor Laws were a series of Acts of Parliament intended to address social instability due to widespread and persistent poverty in Ireland. While some legislation had been introduced by the pre-Union Parliament of Ireland prior to the Act of Union, Ireland had no national Poor Law system prior to the 1830s.[1] The statute which governed Ireland's Poor Law system was the Irish Poor Law Act of 1838, closely modeled on the English Poor Law of 1834.[2] The Poor Law remained the primary method of poor relief in the Irish Free State until 1925 and in Northern Ireland until after the Second World War.[3]

Contents

Pre-Union

Further information: House of Industry

In 1703 an Act of the Irish Parliament provided for the setting up of a House of Industry in Dublin.[4] It was introduced because:

the necessities, number, and continual increase of the poor within the City of Dublin and liberties thereto adjoining, are very great and exceedingly burdensome, for want of workhouses to set them to work, and a sufficient authority to compel thereto." [5]

In a critical open letter of 1737 entitled, A Proposal for giving Badges to the Beggars in all the Parishes of Dublin, Jonathan Swift suggested that the Dublin House of Industry, rather than addressing a local problem was drawing large numbers of 'foreign beggars', meaning those who had come to Dublin from other parts of the country. To counter this he suggested that "beggars should be confined to their own parishes; that, they should wear their badges well sewn upon one of their shoulders, always visible, on pain of being whipped and turned out of town".[6] His opinion that each parish should be made responsible for its own indigent population closely resembled the contemporary English poor law with its right of settlement. 'The Governor and Guardians of the Poor' who administered the workhouse had powers to discipline those who disobeyed workhouse regulations. Punishments which could be administered included flogging, imprisonment and deportation.[7] Governors also had powers to "apprentice out" abandoned children.[7] Similar Acts of Parliament were passed in other Irish cities. In 1735 an Act passed to erect a workhouse in Cork.[8] In 1774, Belfast gained a poorhouse and infirmary after the Belfast Charitable Society raised the necessary funds.[9] A 1772 Act of Parliament allowed the setting up of corporations throughout the country. That year three new Acts were passed for regulating the indigent of Dublin. These were:

  1. For the Dublin Foundling Hospital and Workhouse;
  2. For the relief of poor infants deserted by their parents; and
  3. For badging such poor as should be found unable to support themselves by labour.[10]

Post-Union

Main article: Irish Poor Law Act of 1838

After 1800 Ireland became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Act of Union. Numerous proposals were made to address the problems of widespread poverty in Ireland by House of Commons select committees. Proposals made included public works projects, emigration schemes and the introduction of a Poor Law system. It was however the increasing levels of emigration from Ireland to England during the 1820s and 1830s spurred the Government into action.[7] Roger Swift describes how Irish pauperism and vagrancy informed debates about Poor Law reform and how popular prejudice deemed the Irish to be a burden on poor rates even before the Irish Famine.[11] In England itself, the Irish were used to justify the implementation of the English Poor Law Amendment Act. James Kay-Shuttleworth, a Poor Law Commissioner, believed pauperism to be caused by 'recklesness and improvidence of the native population [and the] barbarism of the Irish immigrants'.[12]

Royal Commission

Main article: Royal Commission on the Poorer Classes in Ireland 1833

A Royal Commission was established in 1833 under the chairmanship of Richard Whately, the Anglican Archbishop of Dublin.[13] It made extensive enquiries throughout the country, examining people from all political viewpoints, religious persuasions and social classes, over a period of three years before submitting its recommendations in 1836. The Commission concluded that the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 which had been introduced in England and Wales would be unsuitable for Ireland.[7] It argued that the root cause of Irish unemployment was lack of work, meaning that the large scale introduction of workhouses was not necessary and might be dangerous.

...we cannot estimate the number of persons in Ireland out of work and in distress during thirty weeks of the year at less than 585,000, nor the number of persons dependent on them at less than 1,800,000, making in the whole 2,385,000. This therefore, is about the number for which it would be necessary to provide accommodation in workhouses, if all who require relief were there to be relieved; and we consider it morally, indeed physically, impossible so to provide for such a multitude, or even to attempt it with safety.[14]

As these proposals clashed with the policies of the British Government they were largely ignored.[1] The 1833 Royal Commission proposals included:

  • Reclaiming bog land[15]
  • Public work schemes[15]
  • The development of industries such as fishing and mining[15]
  • Improvements in the standard of housing[15]
  • The leasing of land [15]
  • Sunday closing of public houses[15]

As the policies which the Royal Commission had concluded were considered unsuitable a new report was Commissioned. This report by the Poor Law Commissioner George Nicholls recommended extending the Poor Law system to Ireland[16] This led to the passing of the Irish Poor Law Act of 1838 by the Government of Viscount Melbourne[17] which introduced the workhouse system. Until then, the use of 'Houses of Industry' was on a much smaller scale than in England and Wales.[18] By 1836 there were still only nine 'houses of industry' throughout the country located in the towns and cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Belfast, Kilkenny, Clonmel, Ennis and Wexford.[19] The Irish Poor Law was enacted by the Government in 1837 and gave powers to each Board of Guardians to collect a Poor rate as a form of taxation to support the local parish Union Workhouse.[18] The Act,also known as the Poor Law Relief Act, 1838[20] divided Ireland into 159 districts called Poor Law Unions.[21] A workhouse was built in each of these unions to house 'paupers'.

The main proposals contained in the Act were:

  • The extension of the powers of the Poor Law Commissioners for England and Wales to cover Ireland[7]
  • The division of the country into Poor Law Unions.[7]
  • The creation of Boards of Guardians and building of workhouses[7] Boards of Guardians were elected from electoral divisions which were subdivisions of the 159 Poor Law Unions.[22]
  • The levying of a poor rate on property owners.[7] An adage of the period was "Irish property pay for Irish poverty’.[23]
  • Assistance for inmates to emigrate.[7]

The Poor Law Commissioners were based in Dublin from 1847 until 1872 when the Local Government Board took over its functions. The role of the Poor Law Commissioners was to ensure that local Boards of Guardians carried out their functions effectively.[24] During the Irish Famine some Boards were threatened with bankruptsy and surrendered their powers to the Poor Law Commission. Commissioners issued regulations on poor rates.[24]

Ireland was initially split into 130 Poor Law Unions but this was altered when it became apparent that some of the Unions were too large. One more Union was created in 1848 and 32 more in 1850 meaning that the total number of Unions was 163.[25] The existence of a workhouse in a town benefited the local economy of an area as businesses could bid to supply the workhouse. The building of the workhouses themselves also created jobs.

By 1845 there were 123 workhouses in Ireland. Able-bodied men and women were made to work. Men could be made to break stones and women knitting.[26] The English architect George Wilkinson built many of the workhouses in Ireland. In 1838 a valuation of the whole of Ireland was undertaken in order to decide at what level poor rates should be set.[25] There were delays in the opening of workhouses due to a shortage of funds as landlords were reluctant to pay the poor rate.[27]

Boards of Guardians were elected in every Poor Law Union.[28] From 1847 half were magistrates and half were elected with all those owning property over £4 entitled to vote.[28] From the 1880s people who sat on Boards of Guardians tended to be landowners, businessmen and farmers.[28] Outside of Ulster most members of Boards were liberal, middle class and Catholic.[29]

Irish nationalist MP Daniel O'Connell opposed the introduction of the 1838 Irish Poor Law and withdrew his support for the Whig government when they refused to alter the legislation.[30] Protestant landlords who had to finance the Poor Law system also opposed the introduction of the system.[27] A criticism of the system of the Irish Poor Law system was that it failed to adequately distinguish between the "deserving poor" and those not deserving of relief.[31]

In the 1830s there were attempts to create a system of medical relief based upon the network of workhouses. After the Medical Charities (Ireland) Act of 1851 a medical system based on the Poor Law was put in place allowing Unions to be divided into "dispensary districts". The Public Heath Act of 1866 gave these dispensaries some public health functions and their role was further expanded by the Public Health (Ireland) Act of 1878.[32]

Differences between English and Irish Poor Laws

Although the Irish Poor Law was modeled on the English Poor Law of 1834 where were several differences:

  • Under the Irish Poor Law no outdoor relief was to be allowed whatsoever. The English Poor Law severely discouraged outdoor relief.[7] In reality outdoor relief was a feature of the Irish Poor Law system but levels were much lower than in England and Wales.[31]
  • Irish Poor Law Commissioners were given much greater controls over Unions.[7]
  • There was no Settlement Laws (See Poor Relief Act 1662).[7]
  • Clergymen could not sit on a Board of Guardians.[7]

Emigration

Further information: Great Famine (Ireland)

Prior to the Great Famine (1845-50) relief was only available in the workhouse.[3] However, during the Great Famine, workhouses became so overwhelmed that large numbers of paupers were assisted to emigrate.[33] The workhouse in Skibbereen was built to cater for 800 paupers but eventually accommodated 1449. The level of overcrowded caused an outbreak of typhus to occur which at its peak killed over 2,600 people in a week.[27]

This had the effect of permitting more to enter the workhouse in the hope of escaping starvation and disease. In response, Guardian-assisted emigration was reserved only for those who had received indoor relief for over two years.[34] Over 45,000 people emigrated from Ireland due to these emigration schemes. Historian Peter Gray argues that the Irish Poor Law system was not designed for the "extra ordinary" conditions of national famine experienced during the 1840s. Workhouses became so overwhelmed that there were widespread shortages of bedding, clothing and medicine.[35]

It was eventually accepted that outdoor relief should be granted, meaning that paupers did not need to enter the workhouse to receive aid. In 1847 Poor Law Boards decided that outdoor relief could be granted to the sick and disabled and to widows with two or more legitimate children.[3] The British government encouraged emigration taxes imposed on landlords based upon the number of paupers in a parish.[33] The bulk of this migration was caused by just 10 landlords who between them sent 30,000 people.[36] Soup kitchens were introduced in 1847 when the Temporary Relief Act, widely known as the Soup Kitchen Act was passed to take pressure off of the Poor Law system.[37]

After the Great Famine

The Poor Law Unions gained additional powers in relation to health, housing and sanitation during the 19th century.

The scheme departed from the principle that the Poor Law should be a local tax with the introduction of a scheme by which loans to distressed unions were repaid by a levy on more prosperous unions.[3] After the Famine levels of outdoor relief were low in comparison with levels in England, but levels of outdoor relief rose[3]. A period of depression in the years 1879-81 restrictions on the granting of outdoor relief were again relaxed.

In 1847 the British government moved to lessen the "burden" of famine relief on the English middle and upper classes by announcing that the famine was over. The Poor Law Extension Act was passed so that only those with less than a quarter of an acre of land were available for poor relief.[27] Financial aid from the Treasury was stopped and Poor Law Unions were made responsible for outdoor relief.

In the years after the Famine aid was concentrated mainly on "Congested Districts" located on the West coast of Ireland had had high population levels and low employment opportunity. 25,000 people from the West of Ireland emigrated between 1883 and 1891.[36]

Under the Local Government Act 1898 Poor Law Unions lost some of the powers they held over housing and sanitation. In 1920 Poor Law Unions were abolished in Ireland, except in Dublin.

Doolough Tragedy

Main article: Doolough Tragedy

The Doolough Tragedy was an event which occurred during the Irish famine in which several hundred paupers died of starvation attempting to gain entry to a workhouse. The tragedy occurred after the relief officer of the Doolough workhouse told the crowd that only the Board of Guardians was authorised to hand out food or tickets for admission. As two Board members were attending a meeting in Delphi the next day, a group travelled 18 kilometres in order to see a Board Member in order to gain entry. On reaching Delphi the Board of Guardians members were insensitive towards their plight and told them that their trip was in vain. Hundreds perished on the return journey.[27]

Irish independence

The issue of workhouses was seized upon by Irish nationalists who argued that the workhouse system was an importation from England. Even Unionists criticized the workhouse system as inefficient.[3] Britain attempted to counter Irish nationalism through the promotion of social and economic development. Following independence, Boards of Guardians were replaced by County Boards of Health or County Boards of Public Assistance.[18] During the Irish Civil War many workhouses were occupied by the military and were either damaged or burnt down.[7] Workhouses were abolished in the Republic of Ireland in 1925. In Northern Ireland the Poor Law system survived until 1948.[38]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Ennistymon Union - The Poor Law Act". Clarelibrary.ie. http://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/coclare/history/poorlawact.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  2. ^ "Research: Guide to the records of the Poor Law". Nationalarchives.ie. http://www.nationalarchives.ie/research/poorlaw.html. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
  3. ^ a b c d e f "The Poor Law in Ireland, 1838-1948 by Virginia Crossman (Oxford Brookes University)". History.ac.uk. http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/welfare/articles/crossmanv.html. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
  4. ^ http://www.ancestryireland.com/hip_statutes.php?filename=15.2.1
  5. ^ Shannon Millin, S.; Slums: a sociological retrospect of the city of Dublin (23rd January, 1914). "Slums: a sociological retrospect of the city of Dublin". Journal of The Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland (Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland) XIII Part XCIV: 132. http://www.tara.tcd.ie/handle/2262/7937. Retrieved 2009-07-28.  (Scroll to View/Open)
  6. ^ Swift, Jonathan (1997–2009). "A Proposal for giving Badges to the Beggars in all the Parishes of Dublin (Author: Jonathan Swift April 22, 1737)". Corpus of Electronic Texts (UCC). http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/E700001-009/index.html. Retrieved 2009-07-28. 
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Peter Higginbotham. "The Workhouse Web Site". www.workhouses.org.uk. http://www.workhouses.org.uk/index.html?Ireland/Ireland.shtml. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
  8. ^ Malcolm, Elizabeth (1999). Greta Jones & Elizabeth Malcolm. ed. Medicine, disease and the state in Ireland, 1650-1940. Cork University Press. pp. 209. ISBN 9781859182307. http://books.google.com/books?id=LPZhfPHLiNQC&pg=PA209&dq=Greta+Jones%22firstly,+the+irish+authorities+had+been+slow%22. Retrieved 2009-07-26. 
  9. ^ http://www.workhouses.org.uk/index.html?Belfast/Belfast.shtml
  10. ^ Collins, James (1913). "CHAPTER X". in digitised by chapters of dublin. Life in old Dublin. Dublin: James Duffy. http://www.chaptersofdublin.com/books/OldDub/chapter10.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-26. 
  11. ^ Swift, Roger (2002). Roger Swift. ed. Irish migrants in Britain, 1815-1914: a documentary history. Cork University Press. ISBN 9781859182369. http://books.google.com/books?id=hIMRfG8R-_gC&pg=PA74&dq=Swift,+Roger,+%22a+burden+on+the+poor+rates%22. Retrieved 2009-07-26. 
  12. ^ http://www.victorianweb.org/history/poorlaw/antipoor.html
  13. ^ Crossman, Virginia, Politics, pauperism and power in late nineteenth-century Ireland, p8
  14. ^ Royal Commission of Enquiry (1836). Royal Commission for inquiring into the condition of the poorer classes in Ireland; third report. Online publisher - EPPI University of Southampton: His Majesty's Stationary Office. pp. 5 of 592. http://www.eppi.ac.uk/eppi/digbib/view?did=c1:65245&p=5&sdid=c1:65250. Retrieved 2009-07-26. 
  15. ^ a b c d e f Peter Higginbotham. "The Workhouse Web Site". www.workhouses.org.uk. http://www.workhouses.org.uk/index.html?Ireland/Ireland.shtml. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  16. ^ "Ennistymon Union - The Poor Law Act". Clarelibrary.ie. http://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/coclare/history/poorlawact.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
  17. ^ http://www.victorianweb.org/history/pms/melbourne.html
  18. ^ a b c Poor Law Unions in Ireland
  19. ^ Royal Commission of Enquiry (1836). digitised by EPPI - University of Southampton. ed. Condition of the poorer classes in Ireland: second report. His Majesty's Stationary Office. pp. 5 of 17. http://www.eppi.ac.uk/eppi/digbib/view?did=c1%3A58641&p=1&fp=1&lp=17&rp=4&Submit=Go. Retrieved 2009-07-26. 
  20. ^ "County Kilkenny Ireland Poor Law Union Map". Rootsweb.ancestry.com. 2004-10-04. http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~irlkik/plumap.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  21. ^ "1838-Poor-Law-Act". Irishgenealogy.com. http://www.irishgenealogy.com/ireland/1838-Poor-Law-Act.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
  22. ^ "Poor Law Unions in Ireland". Irish-roots.ie. http://www.irish-roots.ie/poor-law-unions.asp. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  23. ^ Gray, Peter (21 - 25 August 2006). "The Irish Poor Law and the Great Famine". International Economic History Association (IEHA). pp. 2. http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/Gray.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-28. 
  24. ^ a b "The Commissioners". Askaboutireland.ie. http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/poor-law-union/poor-law-unions-and-their/the-commissioners/. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  25. ^ a b "The Union". Askaboutireland.ie. http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/poor-law-union/poor-law-unions-and-their/the-union/. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  26. ^ "TANDY - Irish Famine - Workhouse". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/4_11/tandy/projects/famine/workhouse.shtml. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  27. ^ a b c d e "Triskelle - Irish history: Poor Law". Triskelle.eu. http://www.triskelle.eu/history/reliefworks.php?index=060.090.020. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  28. ^ a b c "Board of Guardians". Askaboutireland.ie. http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/poor-law-union/poor-law-unions-and-their/board-of-guardians/. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  29. ^ Webster Hollis, Daniel, The history of Ireland, p92
  30. ^ "Daniel O'Connell". Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRoconnell.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  31. ^ a b http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/welfare/articles/crossmanv.html
  32. ^ "The Establishment of the Poor Law System". Askaboutireland.ie. http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/poor-law-union/poor-law-unions-and-their/the-establishment-of-the-/. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  33. ^ a b "The Irish poor law | Public Record Office of Northern Ireland". Proni.gov.uk. http://www.proni.gov.uk/index/exhibitions_talks_and_events/19th_century_emigration_to_the_north_america_online/helping_hands/the_irish_poor_law.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
  34. ^ The Irish poor law Public Record Office of Northern Ireland.
  35. ^ "Ireland". 209.85.229.132. http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:d3BvPYuFXJQJ:www.institutions.org.uk/workhouses/ireland/ireland_workhouses.htm+irish+workhouses&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk&client=firefox-a. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  36. ^ a b "The Irish poor law | Public Record Office of Northern Ireland". Proni.gov.uk. 2009-07-21. http://www.proni.gov.uk/index/exhibitions_talks_and_events/19th_century_emigration_to_the_north_america_online/helping_hands/the_irish_poor_law.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-25. 
  37. ^ Campbell Bartoletti, Susan (2001). Black potatoes: the story of the great Irish famine, 1845-1850. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 75. ISBN 9780618002719. http://books.google.com/books?id=WdmQoaeVuG4C&pg=RA1-PA75&lpg=RA1-PA75&dq=%22Soup+Kitchen+Act%22+1847&source=bl&ots=8KuSXfbTHx&sig=KPV_4StEhWpvltXv5_7s161nGbQ&hl=en&ei=OlBrSqmjDJmOjAfihr2eCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3. 
  38. ^ http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/History/NewsandEvents/Conferences/poverty09/

Further reading

Contemporary accounts

19th Century

20th Century

External links

External images
Map of Poor Law Unions 1842-49

Whately report (1218 pages) available through EPPI.

v • d • e
The Poor Law
Tudor period Nantwich workhouse (1780)
Nantwich workhouse, 1780
Old Poor Law (1601)
Relief systems
Classifications
Poor Law
Amendment Act 1834
Opposition
Post-Amendment
Demise and abolition
of the Poor law system
Poor Law in Ireland and Scotland
Scottish Poor Laws  · Irish Poor Laws
Other

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