Joseph Warren Stilwell (March 19, 1883 –
October 12, 1946) was a United States Army four-star general best-known for his
service in China. He was nicknamed "Uncle Joe" and "Vinegar Joe" for his purported concern for the
average soldier and forthright manner.
Early life
Stilwell was born on March 19th, 1883 in Palatka, Florida of patrician Yankee stock.[1] His parents
were Doctor Benjamin Stilwell and Mary A. Peene. Stilwell was an eighth generation descendant
of an English colonist who arrived in America in 1638, whose descendants remained in New York
up through the birth of Stilwell's father.[2] Named for a
family friend, as well as the doctor who delivered him, Joseph Stilwell, known as Warren by his family, grew up in New York,
under a strict regimen from his father that included an emphasis on religion. Stilwell later admitted to his daughter that he
picked up criminal instincts due to,"...being forced to go to Church and Sunday School, and seeing how little real good religion
does anybody, I advise passing them all up and using common sense instead."[3]
Stilwell's rebellious attitude led him to a record of unruly behavior once he reached a post-graduate level at Yonkers High School. Prior to this last year, Stilwell had performed meticulously in his classes, and had
participated actively in such sports as Football (as quarterback) and Track.[4] Under the discretion of his father, Stilwell was placed into a post-graduate course following
graduation, and immediately formed a group of friends whose activities ranged from card playing to stealing the desserts from the
senior dance in 1900. This last event, in which an administrator was punched, lead to the expulsions and suspensions for
Stilwell's friends. Stilwell, meanwhile, having already graduated, was once again by his father's guidance, sent to attend the
United States Military Academy at West Point, rather than to proceed to Yale University
as originally planned.[5]
Despite missing the deadline to apply for Congressional appointment to the military academy, Stilwell gained entry through the
use of family connections who knew President William McKinley. In his first year,
Stilwell underwent hazing as a plebe that he referred to as "hell."[6] While at West Point, Stilwell showed an aptitude for languages, such as French, in which he ranked first in his class during his second year. In the field of sports, Stilwell
is credited with introducing Basketball to the Academy, and participated in Cross-country running (as Captain), as well as played on the Varsity football team. However, the rebellious nature that marked his last year of high school appeared at West
Point in the form of demerits, two in fact for laughing during drill. Ultimately, Stilwell graduated from the academy ranked 32nd
in class that consisted of 124 cadets.[7]
Military career
Stilwell later taught at West Point, and attended the Infantry Advanced Course and the Command and General Staff College. During World War
I, he was the U.S. Fourth Corps intelligence officer and helped plan the St.
Mihiel offensive. He was awarded the Distinguished Service
Medal for his service in France.
Stilwell is often remembered by his sobriquet, "Vinegar Joe", which he acquired while a commander at Fort Benning, GA. Stilwell often gave harsh critiques of performance in field exercises, and a subordinate
- stung by Joe's acidity - drew a caricature of Stilwell rising out of a vinegar bottle. After discovering the caricature,
Stilwell pinned it to a board and had the drawing photographed and distributed to friends. [8]
Between the wars, Stilwell served three tours in China, where he became fluent in Chinese, and was the military attaché at the
United States Embassy from 1935 to 1939. In 1939 and 1940 he served in the 2nd Infantry Division and from 1940 to 1941 organized and trained the
7th Infantry Division at Fort
Ord, California. It was there that his leadership style - which emphasized concern for the average soldier and minimized
ceremonies and officious discipline - earned him the nickname of “Uncle Joe.”
Just prior to World War II, Stilwell was recognized as the top corps commander in the Army and was initially selected to plan
and command the Allied invasion of North Africa. [9]
However, when it became necessary to send a senior officer to China to keep that country in the War, Stilwell was selected, over
his personal objections, by President Franklin Roosevelt and his old friend, Army
Chief of Staff George C. Marshall. He became the Chief of Staff to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek, served as the commander of the
China Burma India Theater responsible for all Lend-Lease supplies going to China, and later was Deputy Commander of the South East Asia Command. Unfortunately, despite his status and position in China, he soon became
a pawn in the political game of U.S. Lend-Lease aid and Chinese politics.
Burma
Stilwell's post in the China-Burma-India Theater, while a geographical command on the same level as the commands of
Dwight D. Eisenhower and Douglas
MacArthur, was a more complicated one due to the lower priority of the Theater for supplies and personnel and the greater
need to balance political and military activities. The British and the Chinese were ill-equipped and more often than not on the
receiving end of Japanese offensives. Chiang in particular was interested in hoarding Lend-Lease supplies for later use during
the inevitable civil war, which put him directly at odds with Stilwell who wanted to use the supplies to prosecute the war.
Chiang's reluctance was reinforced after watching two of his best armies crippled in Burma under foreign control. Furthermore,
after fighting and resisting the Japanese for five years, many in the Nationalist government felt that it was time for the Allies
to assume a greater burden in fighting the war. [10]
However, the first step to fighting the war for Stilwell was the reformation of the Chinese Army.[11] Contrastingly, such a maneuver would have upset the delicate balance of
political and military alliances, which kept Chiang in power. Reforming the army meant removing men who maintained Chiang's
position on top.[12] While he outwardly gave Stilwell
command of some Chinese troops, Chiang preferred that the war in China be fought in the air by General Claire Chennault's air force, something Chennault assured the Generalissimo was feasible. This, in
turn, pushed Chennault and Stilwell into competition for the valuable Lend-Lease supplies arriving over the Himalayas from British-controlled India — an obstacle referred to as "The
Hump."[13] George Marshall acknowledged he had given Stilwell the toughest assignment of any theater
commander.[citation needed]
Arriving in Burma just in time to experience the collapse of the Allied defense of that country, which cut China off from all
land and sea supply routes, Stilwell personally led the American forces out of Burma on foot. This courageous walkout from Burma
and his bluntly honest assessment of the disaster (he called it "a hell of a beating") captured the imagination of the American
public, badly in need of candor and an American hero at that stage of the war.
After the walkout, China was cut off completely from Allied aid and materiel except through the hazardous route of flying
cargo aircraft over the Hump. Early on, the Combined Chiefs of Staff had
determined that Allied ground forces would not be sent to China; they realized that there was an inability to support them
adequately. Conceptually, the Allies' strategy was that China would supply the ground forces to fight the Japanese, and the
Americans would provide logistical and air support.
Convinced that the Chinese soldier was the equal of any given the proper care and leadership, Stilwell established a training
center for two divisions of Chinese troops in India. Stilwell's primary goals were the opening of a land route to China from
northern Burma and India, so that greater supplies could be transported to China, and to organize a competent Chinese army that
would fight the Japanese. Strategically, this was the only area at that time where the possibility existed for the Allies of
engaging large numbers of troops against their common enemy, Japan.
Disagreements with Chiang
Stilwell was constantly embroiled in disagreements with Chiang - whom Stilwell labeled "Peanut" in his official reports -
about engaging Chinese forces against the Japanese. Stilwell would press Chiang to fight, while Chiang, with some legitimacy,
preferred to preserve a defensive posture for political and military reasons. Chiang was concerned that his troops lacked
training and supplies, and he also wanted to keep Chinese Nationalist forces ready to fight
the Communists, under Mao Tse-tung after the end of the
war with the Japanese. Infuriated by what he regarded as Chiang's corruption, incompetence and timidity, Stilwell constantly
filed reports to Washington complaining of Chiang's inaction. Eventually, Stilwell’s belief that Chiang and his generals were
incompetent and corrupt reached such proportions that Stilwell sought to cut off Lend-Lease aid to China. In his diary, which he
faithfully kept, Stilwell began to note the corruption and the amount of money ($380,584,000 in 1944 dollars) being wasted upon
the procrastinating Chiang and his government.
For his part, Chiang would actually countermand orders to Chinese units issued by Stilwell in his capacity as Chief of Staff.
Chiang demanded impossibly large amounts of supplies before he would agree to take offensive action. Since the amount of supplies
that could be transported to China by air were inadequate, Stilwell constantly fought not only Chiang but also the American air
forces in China under General Claire Lee Chennault, which demanded large
percentages of the supplies for their own operations.
Stilwell was hampered in large part by the rampant corruption of the Chiang regime; the Cambridge History of China, for
instance, estimates that some 60-70% of Chiang's Kuomintang conscripts did not make it through their basic training, with some
40% deserting and the remaining 20% dying before full induction into the military. Similarly, as the war began to wind down much
evidence was uncovered to lend credence to Stilwell's accusations; upon completion of the infamous "White Paper" (c. 1948) on the
Chiang regime President Harry Truman reportedly declared "They're all a bunch of damn thieves!" and pulled all economic and
military support for the regime, thus leading directly to the KMT downfall and retreat to the island of Formosa.
Other Conflicts
Stilwell also continually clashed with Field Marshal Archibald
Wavell, and apparently came to believe that the British in India were more concerned with protecting their colonial
possessions there than helping the Chinese fight the Japanese. In August 1943, as a result of the feuding and conflicting goals
of the British, Americans and Chinese and the lack of coherence of a strategic vision for the China Burma India theater, the
Combined Chiefs of Staff split the CBI command into a Chinese theater and a Southeast Asia theater.
With the establishment of the new South East Asia Command in August 1943, Stilwell was appointed Deputy Supreme Allied
Commander under Vice Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten. He built up the Chinese forces for an offensive
in northern Burma and on 21 December he assumed direct control of operations to capture the
Burmese city of Myitkyina. The city did not fall until August 1944. Among other reasons,
Stilwell blamed the British Chindits for not obeying his orders promptly enough. When General
William Slim, commander of British and Commonwealth forces in Burma, said the men were exhausted and should be withdrawn, Stilwell
would not agree until the men had undergone a medical examination.
One of the most significant conflicts to emerge during the war was between General Stilwell and Claire Chennault, the
commander of the famed "Flying Tigers". Chennault commanded the Chinese air force and was very close to the Chiang family, using
this personal influence to push his vision of a strictly limited air offensive against the Japanese. Stilwell insisted that the
idea was untenable, and that any air campaign should not start until fully fortified air bases supported by large infantry
reserves had first been established. Chiang refused, instead following Chennault's advice, thus allowing him to once again hoard
supplies and personnel. Consequently, in 1944 the Japanese launched the counter-offensive, Operation Ichi-Go, quickly overrunning the air bases and proving Stilwell correct. Ironically,
however, Chiang manipulated the opportunity to blame Stilwell for the Japanese successes, demanding that the Americans recall
him.
Despite these considerable difficulties, Stilwell did manage to lead the Chinese troops and British Imperial troops under his
command to shorten the air supply route and finish the Ledo Road, which linked to the northern
end of the Burma Road as the primary land supply route to China. The Ledo Road was later renamed the Stilwell Road in acknowledgment of Stilwell's efforts.
Return to US
In October 1944 Stilwell was relieved of his commands by President Franklin D.
Roosevelt. He returned unceremoniously to the United States only to be met by two Army generals at the airport, who told
him that he was not to answer any media questions about China whatsoever. A presidential election was coming up and Roosevelt did
not want to take any unnecessary risks.
In her book Stilwell and the American Experience in China, Barbara Tuchman
wrote that Stilwell was sacrificed as a political expedient due to his inability to get along with his allies in the theater.
Stilwell's removal was certainly a result of substantial political pressure by Chiang through diplomatic means and using
influential American friends who supported Chiang's government. One such group, informally called the "China Lobby," included Time publisher Henry Luce and his wife Clare Boothe Luce as well as J. Edgar
Hoover, head of the FBI.
Some historians have theorized that Roosevelt was concerned that Chiang would sign a separate peace with Japan, which would
free many Japanese divisions to fight elsewhere, and that Roosevelt wanted to placate Chiang. The power struggle over the China
Theater that emerged between Stilwell, Chennault, and Chiang reflected the American political divisions of the time.
A highly different interpretation of events was that Stilwell, pressing for a more full engagement of Chinese forces, had made
diplomatic inroads with the Chinese Communist Red Army commanded by Mao Zedong. He had gotten
them to agree to follow an American commander. Because of the displeasure of Chiang Kai-Shek of being bypassed by the American
general, he had Stilwell recalled to the United States. New York Times reporter Brooks
Atkinson wrote at the time: "The decision to relieve General Stilwell represents the political triumph of a moribund,
anti-democratic regime that is more concerned with maintaining its political supremacy than in driving the Japanese out of China.
America is now committed... to support a regime that has become increasingly unpopular and distrusted in China, that maintains
three secret police services and concentration camps for political prisoners, that stifles free speech and resists democratic
forces... The Chinese Communists... have good armies that are now fighting guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in North
China... The Generalissimo regards these armies as the chief threat to his supremacy...
has made no sincere attempt to arrange at least a truce with them for the duration of the war... No diplomatic genius could have
overcome the Generalissimo's basic unwillingness to risk his armies in battle with the Japanese..."[14]
Reassignment
Despite prompting by the news media, he never complained about his treatment by Washington or by Chiang. He later served as
Commander of Army Ground Forces, U.S.
Tenth Army Commander in the closing battle for Okinawa in 1945, and as
U.S. Sixth Army Commander.
In November, he was appointed to lead a "War Department Equipment Board" in an investigation of the Army's modernization in
light of its recent experience. Among his recommendations was the establishment of a combined arms force to conduct extended
service tests of new weapons and equipment and then formulate doctrine for its use, and the abolition of specialized anti-tank
units. His most notable recommendation was for a vast improvement of the Army's defenses against all airborne threats, including
ballistic missiles. In particular, he called for "guided interceptor missiles, dispatched in accordance with electronically
computed data obtained from radar detection stations."
Stilwell was never troubled by scandal in his private life. Of his disagreements with Chiang Kai-shek and his recall from
China he wrote: "The trouble was largely one of posture. I tried to stand on my feet instead of my knees. I did not think the
knee position was a suitable one for Americans." His trademarks were an old campaign hat, GI shoes, and no insignia of rank,
portraying himself as a sort of "Soldiers' General." Despite this, he has been criticized for providing inadequate support and
recognition to GIs of Merrill's Marauders operating in Burma.
Stilwell died of stomach cancer on October 12, 1946, at the Presidio of San Francisco, while still on active duty. His ashes were scattered on the Pacific
Ocean, and a cenotaph was placed at the West Point
Cemetery. Among his military decorations are the Distinguished Service Cross, Distinguished Service Medal with one Oak
Leaf Cluster, the Legion of Merit degree of Commander, the Bronze Star, and the Combat Infantryman Badge (this
last award given to him as he was dying from stomach cancer).
Stilwell’s home, built in 1933-1934 on Carmel Point, Carmel,
California, remains a private home with a plaque in front identifying it as the general's home. A number of streets,
buildings, and areas across the country have been named for Stilwell over the years, including Joseph Stilwell Middle School in
Jacksonville, Florida. The Soldiers’ Club he envisioned in 1940 (a time when there
was no such thing as a soldiers’ club in the Army) was completed in 1943 at Fort Ord on the bluffs overlooking Monterey Bay. Many years later the building was renamed “Stilwell Hall” in his honor, but because of the
erosion of the bluffs over the decades, the building was taken down in 2003.
Stillwell was portrayed on film by John Hoyt in Samuel
Fuller's Merrill's Marauders (1962) and by Robert Stack in Steven Spielberg's 1941 (1979)
On August 24, 2000, the United States Postal Service issued a 10¢
postage stamp honoring Stilwell.
The Ledo Road was later renamed the Stilwell Road in acknowledgment of Stilwell's
efforts.
Awards and decorations
See also
References
- Jack Belden, Retreat With Stilwell, New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1943
- Eric Larrabee, Commander In Chief, New York: Harper & Row, 1987. ISBN 0-06-039050-6
- Jon Latimer, Burma: The Forgotten War, London: John Murray, 2004. ISBN
978-0719565762
- Barbara Tuchman, Sand Against the Wind: Stilwell and the American Experience in
China 1911-45, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2001. ISBN 978-1842122815
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
- The Stilwell
Pages
- Annals of the Flying Tigers
- Find-a-Grave
information on Joseph Stilwell
- Additional reading:
- Eldridge, Fred Wrath in Burma The Uncensored Story of Gen. Stilwell Doubleday & Co., 1946.
- Prefer, Nathan Vinegar Joe's War Presidio Press, 2000, ISBN 089141715X.
- Rooney, D.D. Stilwell Pan Macmillan, 1973, ISBN 0345097890.
- Stilwell, Joseph; White, Theodore, Ed. The Stilwell Papers Da Capo Press, 1991, ISBN 030680428x.
Footnotes
- ^ Barbara Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911 -
45 (New York, New York: Macmillan Co., 1971), 10.
- ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience, 9.
- ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience, 11.
- ^ Tuchman, 11.
- ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience, 12.
- ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience, 12 - 13.
- ^ Tuchamn, Stilwell and the American Experience, 15.
- ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China 1911-45, pg
125
- ^ Barbara Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911 -
45 (New York, New York: Macmillan Co., 1971), p. 231 - 232.
- ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience, p.303.
- ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, p.
304.
- ^ Tuchman, p. 306.
- ^ Tuchman, p. 307.
- ^ "Crisis",
Time magazine quoting the New York
Times, 1944-11-13. Retrieved on 2007-03-02.
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