The Candidate of Sciences degree is a first post-graduate scientific degree in many former Eastern Bloc countries, which is awarded for original research that constitutes a significant contribution to a scientific field. The degree was first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. It corresponds to the Doctor of Philosophy degree (Ph.D.) in the USA, the United Kingdom and other countries.[1][2][3]
The highest attainable degree, one level higher than the Candidate of Sciences, is the Doktor nauk, which is roughly analogous to the Doctor of Science degree.
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Procedure for attaining the degree
The work on a dissertation is commonly carried out during a postgraduate study period called aspirantura. It is performed either within an educational institution (such as a university) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences network). It can also be carried out without a direct connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scientific works.
A necessary prerequisite is passing an examination called "candidate minimum". In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the "dissertant", in a foreign language of his/her choice and in Scientific Communism. In post-Soviet Russia and other post-Soviet states, the latter examination was replaced by the one in Philosophy, and in Russia recently in History of science; in Ukraine it is still Philosophy.
The dissertation is presented (defended) at the accredited educational or scientific institutions before a committee called the Scientific Council. The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists (including the academicians) in the field of the dissertation and who have been selected and approved to serve on the Council. The seeker of the degree must have an official "research supervisor". The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the Commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references.
If the defense is successful (75% majority of votes by the secret ballot voting by the members of the Council), it is recommended and later must be approved by the central state-wide board called Higher Attestation Commission or "Vysshaya attestacionnaya komissiya" or VAK (or by similar authority in other applicable countries).[4]
Local characteristics
Former Czechoslovakia
In Czechoslovakia, the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences (Czech: Kаndidát věd, Slovak: Kаndidát vied), degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet one by Law 60/1953 in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus literally the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the Communist Putsch in 1948, the supreme academic authority was represented by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences and universities.
The abbreviation of the degree is CSc. (Latin: candidatus scientiarum), added behind the bearer's name and a comma.
There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states, that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.
- JUDr. (Latin: juris utriusque doctor, English: Doctor of Law, Czech: doktor práv, Slovak: doktor práv)
- PhDr. (Latin: philosophiae doctor, English: Doctor of Philosophy, Czech: doktor filosofie, Slovak: doktor filozofie)
- RNDr. (Latin: rerum naturalium doctor, English: Doctor of Natural Sciences, Czech: doktor přírodních věd, Slovak: doktor prírodných vied)
and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed "doctor". Technically it is an extension of a master-like degree, always stated before names and awarded for elaborating a so called rigorous thesis and defending it at a viva voce (rigorous) exam. Unlike Ph.D., no post-graduate studies are required.
- MUDr. (Latin: medicinae universae doctor) is "Doctor of Medicine" degree equivalent to the North-American MD, attained after 6-year university studies.
- RSDr. (Latin: rerum socialium doctor) was a quasi-degree, awarded exclusively to functionaries of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) during the Communist era, who either or not "graduated" from the Political College of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The leading subject taught was Marxism-Leninism and there was no need to have completed even a secondary school to attain the degree. RSDr. was also possible to attain at some military universities, however, contrary to the previous case, the applicant had to pass further exams.
Czech Republic
Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. (Czech: doktor) An applicant is required to have master's degree (or its equivalent, e.g. Engineer (Ing.) in technical and economic university programs), enroll in an approximately three-year post-graduate program and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university.
Slovakia
Candidate was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. (Slovak: doktor, in 1996-2002 officially in Latin: philosophiae doctor). Requirements are similar to the Czech system.
Former Soviet Union, Russia, Ukraine
In the USSR, there was required at least three original scientific papers published and/or submitted. At least one paper should be in the journal listed by VAK.[4] In Ukraine now, all the three publications have to be published in the journals listed by VAK.
Original Russian translation for Candidate of Sciences is kandidat nauk (Russian: кандидат наук). In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding the Candidate degree.[2]
Branches of science
Depending on the specialty of research in the dissertation, a candidate is awarded one of the following degrees:[5]
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Previously, there was also the degree of "candidate of naval sciences".[6] For some time (in the 1940's) the degree of "candidate of art criticism" called "candidate of art criticism sciences".[citation needed]
Some specialties permit the award of the candidate degree for several variants of branches of science, depending on the dominant subject area of dissertation, e.g., specialty 02.00.04 (physical chemistry)[5] can be awarded the degree of candidate of physico-mathematical, technical, or chemical sciences. However, for each one dissertation only one branch of science can be chosen.
See also
References
- ^ Guidelines for the recognition of Qualifications from the European Countries in the Russian Federation and of Russian Qualifications in the other European Countries // Kouptsov O. Mutual Recognition of Qualifications: the Russian Federation and Other European Countries. – Bucharest: UNESCO, 1997. – 132 pp. – ISBN 92-9069-146-8.
- ^ a b Volkov, M. N. "Кандидат наук" (in Russian). Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Vol. 11. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00032/04200.htm.
- ^ Rosy Nimroody (1988). Star Wars: The Economic Fallout.. Cambridge: Ballinger Pub. Co. p. 168. ISBN 0887301622. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&hl=en&q=%22candidate+of+science%22+ussr+ph.d.+%22star+wars%22+economic.
- ^ a b "Высшая аттестационная комиссия Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации" (in Russian). http://vak.ed.gov.ru/.
- ^ a b Номенклатура специальностей научных работников
- ^ Volkov, M. N. "Доктор наук" (in Russian). Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Vol. 11. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00024/28200.htm.
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