History of the Khitans

契丹 / 遼 Khitan / Liao ←   ← 388–1211 →   → Location of Khitan-Liao (1025) Capital Shangjing (918-1120) Language(s) Khitan language Religion ? Government Monarchy History  - split from Kumo Xi 388  - set up the Liao dynasty 907  - defeated, some absorbed, some exiled 1125  - final defeat in a coup 1211 Population  - peak est. 9,000,000  1. Other Khitan Dynasties include Northern Liao and Western Liao. 2. The Liao Dynasty had a different name, "Khitan", which was used in 916-947, 983-1066.

The history of the Khitans dates back to the 4th century. The Khitan people dominated much of Mongolia, and modern Manchuria (Northeast China) by the 10th century under the Liao Dynasty, and eventually collapsed by 1125 (or 1211).

From Xianbei origins, they were part of the Kumo Xi tribe until 388, when the Kumo Xi-Khitan tribal grouping was roundly defeated by the newly established Northern Wei, allowing the Khitan to resume their own tribe and entity, and beginning the Khitan written history.^[1]

From the 5th to the 8th centuries, they were dominated by the steppe power to their West, the Turks, then the Uyghurs. The Chinese also came from the south (Northern dynasties or Tang). In some cases under Korean domination (from the East, mainly Goguryeo), according to the balance of power at any given time. Under this triple domination and oppression, the Khitan started to show growing power and independence. Their rise was slow compared to other cases. Slow because it was frequently crushed by its neighbouring powers, each using the Khitan warriors when needed, but each ready to crush them when the Khitan rose too much and became powerful. Close to becoming an independent fourth regional power. The 696-697 Li-Shun Rebellion is really instructive on this "2 adults and 1 teenager" game: the Khitan were encouraged by the Turks to take all the risks and revolt against the Tang, which they successfully accomplished, before being attacked at their rear by the Turks, to the great advantage of the newly-reborn Turkish empire.

Enjoying the departure of Uyghur people for West, and the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in early 10th century, they established the Liao Dynasty in 907. The Liao Dynasty proved to be a significant power north of the Chinese plain, continuously moving south and West, gaining control over former Chinese and Turk-Uyghur's territories. They eventually fell to the Jin Dynasty of the Jurchenin 1125. Who submitted and absorb Khitans to their military benefit.^[2]

Following the fall of the Liao Dynasty, many moved further west and established the state of Kara Khitai. Their name survived in the Russian word for China (Китай, Kitay), as well as the archaic English (Cathay), Portuguese (Catai), and Spanish (Catay) appellations of the country. They has been classified by Chinese historians as one of the Eastern proto-Mongolic ethnic groups Donghu (simplified Chinese: 东胡族; traditional Chinese: 東胡族; pinyin: Dōnghú zú).^{[citation needed]}

Origins

To expand soon^[3]

References to the Khitan in Chinese sources date back to the fourth century. Ancestors of the Khitan were the Yuwen clan of the Xianbei, an ethnic group situated in the area covered by the modern Liaoning province.^{[citation needed]} After their regime was conquered by the Murong clan, the remnants scattered in the modern-day Inner Mongolia and mixed there with the original Mongolic population.

Pre-Dynastic Khitans (388–907)

They had been identified as a distinct ethnic group since paying tribute to the Northern Wei Dynasty in the mid-6th century.^{[citation needed]}

During the time of the Tang Dynasty in China, the Khitan people oscillated between vassality to Tang or to Turks, according to the moment balance of power, or under the Uyghurs when they replaced the Turks as the main steppe power. However, once the Uyghurs left their home in the Mongolian Plateau in 842, enough of a power vacuum was create that gave the Khitan the opportunity to make their rise. The Khitan invaded the areas vacated by the Uyghurs, bringing them under their control.

Khitan's Military activities from 388 to 618

To expand soon^[4]

5th century

The Khitan are under the Toba Wei influence.

6th century

The Khitan tribes were till a weak confederation, heavily defeated in 553 by Northern Qi who enslaved many khitan and seized a lare part of their livestocks,^[5] naturally leading to harsh times for Khitans. By that time, the Khitan are still describe as the lower level of nomad civilization, their 'confederation' still being an anarchous system of isolated tribes, each tending his own sheep and horses and hunting on his private territory.^[5] Some federal leader were create, after election, only in war time, when it really needed some, then becoming temporally a powerful local power.^[6]

Sui dynasty

When the Sui dynasty was establish, in 681, the Khitan were in internal military turmoils, the khitan tribes fighting each other,^[5] maybe as a result of Sui Wendi strategy to increase tensions between nomads in order to divide them an insure Chinese prosperity and field victories. In 586, some khitans tribes submitted to Eastern Tujue (Turks), while some others submitted to the Sui.^[6] Recorded notable Khitans' raids on Chinese Empire occurred several times as early as the seventh century. In 605, they staged a large scale raid southward, invading Sui territories (Northern modern Shanxi, Hebei),^[6] they were eventually crushed by a Sui General leading 20,000 Turkish cavalry.^[7]

Military activities during the first half of the Tang Dynasty (618–735)

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Under Tang Taizong (r. 626-649), Khitans became vassals of Tang China.

The Li-Sun Rebellion (696-697)

Despite some occasional clashes, Khitans remained Chinese vassals until the 690s.^[2] According to the "Loose rein policy," the Khitan area of this time was under Tang control by the Governor-general of Yingzhou, Zhao Wenhui, assisted by local Khitan chieftains, namely the Khitan chieftain and regional governor of Songmo, Li Jinzhong, and his brother-in-law, the Khitan chieftain and prefect of Guicheng, Sun Wanrong.

Opposition rose, first, because of the behavior of Zhao Wenhui, who treated the local chieftains as his servants and humiliated them on many occasions, provoking resentment, and second, because of the famine that struck the Khitan area in 696. According to the "loose rein policy," the Tang Governor-general was supposed to provide famine relief: when Zhao Wenhui failed to do so, adding injury to the insult done his local chieftains, the brothers-in-law launched a Khitan rebellion in the fifth month of 696.^[2]

Li Jinzhong led the rebellion, and quickly captured Yingzhou, where he declared himself "Wushang Kehan" (無上可汗: paramount khaghan). Sun Wanrong assisted him as general, successfully leading tens of thousands of troops southward.

The first significant Chinese response was to send an army with twenty-eight generals, which was promptly defeated by the Khitans in the Battle of Xiashi Gorge (near modern Lulong County of Hebei Province, in the eighth month of 696). Tang China was astonished by the announcement of the defeat, and Empress Wu Zetian quickly issued decrees to launch a new offensive and encourage participation, but victory in battle remained Khitan until Li Jinzhong died of disease. But the rising power of the Khitans also threatened the newly established Second Göktürk Empire (682-745), and the khagan Ashina Mochuo, who had supported their rebellion, now asked the Tang Dynasty to be allowed to ally himself to Chinese efforts in exchange for: an imperial marriage for his daughter; adoption as the son of Empress Wu (diplomatic adoption); the return of Turks in Chinese territories (Hexi); and the restoration of Turkish overlordship of the Khitans.^[2]

The second major Chinese offensive came on the tenth month of 696, Tang attacking from the south while Türks did from north, taking advantage of the recent death of Li Jingzhong. The Khitans were in a dangerous situation, suffering heavy losses, but Sun Wanrong took the lead and restored good order and motivation in Khitan troops. They continuously stormed into Jizhou and Yingzhou, shaking the whole region of Hebei (current north of Huanghe). This opposition was inconclusive.
Also, the powerful Wang Xiaojie assisted by Su Honghui and some other Chinese generals lead a third army, 170,000 troops strong, to the area of the Xiashi Gorge, where they were also crushed by the Khitans, who were masters both on the battlefield and on ambuscades. Wang Xiaojie was killed while Su Honghui fled, and in their wake the Khitans were allowed to capture the frontier garrison of Youzhou, south of Yingzhou.^[2]

In a fourth campaign (fifth month of 697), Empress Wu sent Lou Shide and Shatuo Zhongyi north with 200,000 troops to stop Sun Wanrong's southern advance. Despite the Khitan history of victory, the Turks refused the proposed Khitan-Turk alliance to launch a massive attack on Xincheng, while the helpful (Kumo) Xi betrayed the Khitans to support China. The Khitan populace was now facing devastating Turkish raids in the north, while the successful Khitan army was now facing 200,000 Chinese troops as well as the Xi troops in south. In such a critical situation, the Khitan command fractured, ending in the assassination of Sun Wanrong by one of his own subordinates. The Khitan troops, without a clear leader and in such a critical situation, also collapsed, and the remaining Khitans transferred their allegiance to the Turks (as did the Xi), as Mochou Khaghan and the Empress Wu Zetian had planned early in 696. And a new Khitan chieftain was proclaimed: Li Shihuo (697-717, [李]失活).^[2]

Consequently, Khitan, together with Xi and both under Turkish leadership, remained time by time aggressive toward Chinese, with the Tang launching several punitive campaigns against them from 700 to 714.^[2]

The Li-Sun rebellion and the Turks

Turks played a major role in crushing this rebellion, on military actions and on strategic role as well (attacking on the rear!). It is to understand the Turkish situation. Turks were submit to China in 630, crushing their first Turkish Empire. In 679, enjoying Chinese internal political turmoil, they revolted. They were bloodily defeated by Tang troops in 681 in a Pyrrhic victory, also, the remnant Eastern Turks reunited under Ashina Guduolu (d. 691), who was able to proclaimed the reborn of the Turkish empire (682-745), without Tang's reaction.^[8]
At his death, his brother Mochuo replaced him, and engaged Turks in an aggressive policy of "plunder to strengthen" as the best way to revitalize his Empire. Turks plundered all their neighbour, Khitan and Chinese as well, but encouraged Khitans to rebel against Tang rule. But almost as soon as Khitan rebelled and were successful, Turks proposed China an alliance. Actually, Turks, in war against China, were just asking for a diversion on east, allowing them to be more free on their front. When Khitans unexpectedly appeared to be so successful, they both were surprised and afraid, seeing a new power born on their East, but also, seeing Khitan fighting hard against Chinese, seen the perfect occasion to take advantage of both busied Khitan and crying Tang. By attacking Khitan on their rear, they provided a inestimable help to Tang, while working for themselves too by crushing eastern raising power.^[8]

Even more, while the fourth Chinese campaign was still not launch and despite previous propositions of alliance, Turks attacked Chinese territories to show clearly their strong (third month, 697). Also, along with the final victory, they eventually got back the Turkish population held in six Chinese northern border prefectures since 670-674, the submission of both Khitan and Xi, plus large amount of seed-grain, silk, farming implements, iron, noble titles for Mochou khaghan (General, Khaghan, noble's rank) and the asked imperial marriage.^[8]

The Ketuyu rebellion (720-734)

In the 710s, the Khitan military chief Ketuyu (可突于) was so valiant and beloved by Khitan's commoners that the Khitan King Suogu (李娑固 Li Suogu, r. 718-720) became both jealous and in fear. Accordingly, he plotted to assassinate Ketuyu. As often the case, the plot was disclosed, and Ketuyu's troops attacked the King, who fled to Yingzhou to get Chinese support.^[9]
Xu Qinzhan (許欽?^[10]), the Chinese Governor-General of Yingzhou immediately called for a punitive military campaign, ordering General Xue Tai, assisted by 500 valiant soldier,^[11] Xi troops, and Suogu troops to walk northward. The Chinese-loyalist army was crushed, both Suogu (Khitan King) and Li Dapu (Xi King) were killed, while Xue Tai was kindly captured (and not executed) by Ketuyu, in hope to resume good relations with Chineses, sending an envoy to humbly apologize, while he enthroned Suogu's cousin Yuyu (李鬱于, 720-722/724).^[9]

Indeed, peaceful relations were restored, and when Ketuyu made a second coup to face new king Tuyu suspicions, Tang court peacefully confirmed the newly enthronized king Shaogu (李邵固 Li Shaogu, 725-730), displaying the respective Tang's will of appeasement.^[9]

In 730, Ketuyu went to present tributes to Chang'an and was then mistreated by the chancellor Li Yuanhong. Back to Khitan territories, Ketuyu assassinated the pro-Tang Shaogu (fifth month, 730) and switched the allegiance of his subjects and of the Xi tribes from Tang to Türks, sending a clear message to Tang. Ketuyu then attacked Pinglu (part of Yingzhou) where a preventive Tang's army was stationed.
The Chang'an officials were panicked by the vision of a new Khitan rebellion. They ordered Prince of Zhong Jun -as commander in chief- assisted by 18 generals to go north with warriors recruited from as far as Guannei, Hedong, Henan and Hebei to crush this Khitan-Xi rebellion.^[9] In 732 (third month) Khitan-Xi troops were defeat by the Prince of Xin'an, Ketuyu had to fled away while Li Shi Suogao, the Xi king, betrayed to submit back to Tang with his 5,000 subjects,^[12] getting by the way the titles of the Prince of Guiyi (allegiance and righteousness) and prefect of Guiyi Zhou, with the Xi allowed to settle in Youzhou, under Chinese protection.

A second major campaign came in 733 (fourth month), Guo Yingjie being ordered to lead 10,000 troops assisted by Xi warriors to crush Khitan. But Ketuyu came first with Turkish support, putting Chinese-Xi troops in difficulty, thus, Xi fled to save themselves. As predictable, Guo Yingjie and his men, alone to face Khitan-Turkish troops, lost with heavy causalities: Guo along most of his men being killed on the battlefield. While one year later the Khitan were defeated by Zhang Shougui, regional commander of Youzhou (second month, 734).^[9]

Ketuyu, seeing Khitan forces exhausted by repetitive Tang campaigns, pretended to surrender (twelfth month, 734) and eventually was murdered together with his puppet King, Qulie (李屈列 Li Qulie 730-734), by his subordinate Li Guozhe (李過折). Li Guozhe was soon himself assassinated in favor of a Ketuyu's clan restoration.

Origins of the Ketuyu Rebellion

While traditional scholars explain this Ketuyu Rebellion as a typical barbarian reaction, modern historians are more cautious. Both the Chinese Liao expert Shu Fen and the Japanese Matsui Hitoshi are inclined to think that Chinese lenient policy encouraged Ketuyu's arrogance. On contrary, Xu Elian-Qian supports that the Chinese interferences in Khitan internal changes caused the aggressive Ketuyu's reactions. That true for the conflict of 720 and the aggressive Chinese ingerence tentative. But this opinion does not explain the 725's Chinese appeasement policy, Chinese letting Ketuyu kill the Khitan king and enthrone a new one. Actually, when Ketuyu was personally mistreated in Chang'an (730), this resentment led him to choice the huge of consequences diplomatic opposition by turning his submission to Turk. This turn was predictably understood by Chang'an as a first magnitude treason which can't be tolerated, leading to the following five years of war to submit them back. Shu and Matsui do not see this Chinese reaction as an aggressive interference, but as a predictable interference, caused by Ketuyu arrogant turn face to the recent lenient policy.^[9]

Xu explain that Khitans were in a turning point, the Dahe family being collapsing as an after-shock of the Li-Sun Rebellion, while the Yaonian family was raising by organizing a new confederation (web of alliances). Accordingly, this period was rich in turmoils. The opposition may have came from the respective perceived definition of the « Loose rein » agreement. In time of weakness of the central power, like in the 680's, this Loose rein policy means large independence for submitted population, who choice their own chief, etc. In time of strong central power —as under Tang Xuanzong reign (712-756)— the central Chinese power is incline to impose his pro-Chinese choices, including in choice of Kings and major chiefs, despite the previous Loose rein agreement. Also, in prosperous revitalizing time such Xuanzong's reign and face to the 720's coup, Tang official immediately sent an army to support the dethroned pro-Tang king, clearly interfering in Khitan internal affairs.^[9]

Also, the 730-734 war seems to have been the consequences of both Chinese revitalized foreign policy, Khitan internal turmoil and associated oppression on Ketuyu, and following miscalculations from Ketuyu.

Harassed by An Lushan (750s)

Tang China and Tang provinces by 742. The aggressive An Lushan harassed continuously the Khitan to up their own aggressiveness, get more support from Chang'an, and strengthen himself.

Rise of An Lushan and Chinese-on-Khitan hostilities

By the 730s, Regional commander already add large autonomy of initiative to face neighbouring threats, accordingly, boundary wars and rebellions are understand by many scholars as the full responsibility of local general commanders.

In 736 (third month), Zhang Shougui, the general commander of Youzhou sent his protected, the smart An Lushan (an officer of the Pinglu Army 平盧軍, based in modern Chaoyang, he was said to know 6 languages out of Chinese), to attack Khitan and Xi rebels, but An Lushan made a too-much audacious attack with cost him almost all his troops. He escape usual execution for such disobedience cases in part because of Zhang affection for him, and in part thanks to Emperor Xuanzong who -overviewing death penalty cases- believed that his audacious and mid-barbarian character should not be pay by death.^[13]

Back to Youzhou, he soon became the Bingmashi (兵馬使) of Pinglu Army (741, seventh month), cultivating carefully relationships with other officials and generals to earn praises, and bribing Imperial messengers to advantageously include him in their reports. As the consequence of this systematic bride, he was promote commandant at Yingzhou (Ying prefecture) and Jiedushi (military governor) of the Pinglu army^[14] in 742 to face and defeat northern threat (Khitans, Xi, Bohai, and Heishui Mohe).^[13][15] and military governor of Fanyang Circuit (范陽, headquartered in modern Beijing) in 744, plundering Khitan and Xi villages to display his military abilities. This continuous harassment of Khitan is understand by some scholars as volunteer provocation to up the Khitan aggressiveness and threat, in the aim to get more troops from Chang'an for his future rebellion, and as the reason of the 745's Khitan-Xi rebellion.^[15]

As commander of the northeastern frontier (744–755), An Lushan organised military operations against the Khitan-Xi nomads. His motivation was to curry favour with the Tang court, and probably also to obtain more troops for his subsequent campaigns to defeat what he saw as the enormous threat presented by the northeastern "babarians", amongst whom the Khitan were the most significant. He may also have been motivated by thoughts of preparing for his future rebellion (755–763).

745s Khitan rebellion

In 745 (third month), several Tang's princess were married to Khitan's leaders in sign of appeassment. But for some reason,^[16] Khitans soon (745, ninth month) turned into an open rebellion against Tang, killing the princess and starting military operations. Huge previous pressures from An Lushan combine with Chang'an court praise for him may have display to Khitan an impasse visions against which they eventually revolted. Khitans were quickly defeated by An Lushan's toops by a dual of punitive expeditions and traps. Sources reports that Banquets for peace declaration were set up by An Lushan and offered to Khitan and Xi, whom, happy to get both peace and free provisions rushed to the buffet and drunk heavely these food and wine poisoned by some narcotics. An Lushan then led his warriors to kill all of them, who were sleeping on the ground or drunk enough to be easy to kill, and the Chiefs' heads were send to Tang court for displaying. Sources says that each of such Banquet ended by the death of thousand warriors, but this claims stay difficult to believe: can Khitan be that naive to let An Lushan kill thousands of them -several times- in the same kind of "free food traps" ? The difficulty is that Chinese sources seems also biased against An Lushan, depicting him by this story as a terrible untrustable enemy. The final result stay: Khitan's 745 rebellion was hardly crushed.

751–752s wars to 755s An Shi rebellion

In 751–752, following An Lushan's provocations and harassment, the Khitans moved south to attack the Chinese Tang Empire. Accordingly, Khitan were soon subject to a Chinese campaign (751, eighth month) : An Lushan assisted by 2,000 Xi guides leading 60,000 Chinese troops into Khitan's territories. But when the fights seriously started, Xi suddenly turned their support to Khitan, the Khitan-Xi army then quickly squeezed on hampered-by-rains Tang armies and killed almost all soldiers while An Lushan escaped to Shizhou with just twenty cavalrymen. The defending general Su Dingfang, a Tang's general was eventually able to stop Khitan pursuit troops, which retreated: they had their battlefield victory, not the wished An Lushan's head. So they laid a siege on the city, and only Shi Siming (one An Lushan's general) was able to end this event. One of his generals was killed in action, and, after retreating, he blamed and executed two other for the defeat.

In 752, to punish this audacity and insult, a 200,000 strong army including both Chinese and barbarian infantry and cavalry went northward to meet Khitan. But while he An Lushan requested that the ethnically Tujue general Li Xianzhong (李獻忠) accompany him, Li, feared An and, when compelled to, rebelled, thus putting a halt to An's campaign.^[17] After three years (755, month fourth), An announced his victory, about which historical records are not really clear. By this time, An Lushan was already engaged in an opposition to the Yang clan located in Chang'an, this turned his system of alliances. Put into an impasse, he rose into rebellion and had to walk southward to conquest quickly the unprotected hearth of the Tang territories. In this movement, he then looked for assistance from northern nomads: Tujue, Uighurs, Khitan, Xi, Shiwei. All, in some extend, assisted his troops and his rebellion. Khitan principally by his previously-taken-prisoners' warriors. But the Khitan, exhausted, took little part in these campaigns.

Background reasons of these oppositions

The continuous agitation of Khitans on the northeast of the Empire, maintained by An Lushan actions, provided An Lushan more and more support troops from Chang'an for his own power and ambitions, growing to 160,000–200,000 men. This was allow by several factors:

• An Lushan seemed to be a clever military official especially skilled to set up good relationships with his superiors, whatever by systematic brides (as say sources) or by his possible real abilities;
• An Lushan was skilled to both: up Khitan's aggressivity, enlarge the threat in his rapports, and trap/crush them, getting large praises
• the time (740s) was an apogee of prosperity, the treasury was full, the Chinese Empire was at a maximum of extension, Xuanzong and Chang'an officials sur-estimated their own power and displayed growing mark of lazy behaviour and management: waste of financial resources, lack of troops in the Central area;
• in Chang'an, the high chancellor Li Linfu, facing to the rise of the Yang clan in Chang'an, wanted both to resist the Khitans' pressure and counterbalance the growing influence of the Yang clan in Chang'an affairs.

Accordingly, An Lushan power strengthened with associated pressions on Khitan.

The turning point came when An became worried about the post Xuanzong-Li Linfu (An Lushan add get their favor, but at the cost of relations with other officials). Noticing that the heart of the empire was without defenses, An considered to plan a rebellion. He selected some 8,000 soldiers among the surrendered Khitan, Xi, and Tongluo (同羅) tribesmen, organizing them into an elite corps known as the Yeluohe (曵落河, "the brave") and a dozen of able generals.^[17]

When Li Linfu died and Yang Guozhong —a Yang clan member— replaced him as high chancellor, An Lushan rose in rebellion with his composed armies, and attacked the central power, with some Khitan, Xi, and Turkish supporters. Then only leaving Khitan.

2nd half of the Tang dynasty (763–907)

Middle of Tang's dynasty

Khitans were concentrating themselves on their own development and were relatively peaceful.

Uighurs domination and Khitans state

When Turks where overthrow by Uighurs in 745, the war-lover power ot the Turks was replaced by the commerce-lover Uighurs. Also, the control that Uighurs had on Khitans where of a different kind. Uighurs where focusing on economic exchanges, were the protector of the diplomatic stability, and leave large political and internal freedoms to their vassals. Khitans used this to keep a peaceful environment, helping to strengthened all their demographic, economic and structural force.

For their demography, the main point was the choice to avoid foreign conflicts. The new Steppes lords were relatively peaceful, while the Tang dynasty was later immensely weaken by the An-Shi rebellion (755-763), providing a new intra-China situation with a weak center and with provinces generals turn on the pacification and strengthening of their respective provinces. In this context, Khitans and their close-relatives the Xi had opposite strategies. Kumo Xi keeped a relatively aggressive foreign policy slowly exhausting their forces. Khitans choice to stay a calm self-defensive power, enjoying most of the Manchurian plain, and working to improve their daily situation. While previous centuries successive Turko-Chinese provocations (or recall to obeisance) and following wars had forbidden to Khitan any notable grow, this VIII century situation eventually allowed one. This demographic grow will strongly support the other qualitative changes.

Pre-Dynastic Khitan's allegiances and reasons

• pre-388 : Kumo Xi, themselves submitted to Turks, Part of the Kumo Xi-Khitan tribal complex^[18]

• 388-?:^[18] Later (383-409) & Northern Yan (409-436), 388's Kumo Xi defeat face to Northern Wei
• 479-?^[18]: Northern Wei, to avoid Rouran-Goguryean invasion
• 560's(?)-?^[18]: some tribes submit to Goguryeo, to avoid Northern Qi and Eastern Turk threat (heavy 553's defeat face to N. Qi + new threat by Turks) ;
• To complete
• 648-696^[19] : Tang Dynasty, because of recent Tang expansion, and following Turkish collapse;
• 696-697 : independent (Li-Sun Rebellion) and in war on all sides, encouraged by Tujue and cause by Chinese official mistreatment a famine;
• 697-72X : Tang Dynasty+ Tujue, since the 697's defeat;
• 730-734^[9]: Turks, Ketuyu Rebellion cause by Tang interventionism and Tang's Chancellor mistreatment;
• 734-? : Tang Dynasty, because of recent defeat.
• To complete

Liao Dynasty, The Golden Age (907–1125)

Khitan Empire in 1025 AD, along with its neighbors

Liao funerary mask, 10-12th century CE

The Liao Dynasty was founded in 907 when Abaoji, posthumously known as Emperor Taizu was named the leader of the Khitan nation. Even though the Great Liao Dynasty was not declared until the 947, it is generally said to have begun with the elevation of Abaoji.

Though Abaoji died in 926, the dynasty would last nearly two more centuries. Five cities were designated as capitals during that dynasty. In addition to the supreme capital in the heartland of Khitan territory, there were four regional capitals. One of which was Beijing, which became a capital for the first time in its history, though it was not the principle capital of the dynasty, but rather was designated as the southern capital after the Khitan acquired the contentious Sixteen Prefectures in 935.

Abaoji introduced a number of innovations, some more successful than others. He divided the empire into two parts, one of which was governed based on nomadic models while the sedentary population was government largely in accordance with Chinese techniques.

Less successful was the attempted introduction of primogeniture in succession to the throne. Although he designed his eldest son to be heir, he did not succeed Abaoji.

Abaoji was "afraid that their use of Chinese advisers and administrative techniques would blur their own ethnic identity, the Khitan made a conscious effort to retain their own tribal rites, food, and clothing and refused to use the Chinese language, devising a writing system for their own language instead."^[20] The first of these two scripts was created in 920. The second, based on alphabetic principles, was created five years later.

Post Liao Dynasty history

The Khitans were absorbed by Jurchens, and widely used in the following years of war to conquer northern Song territories. On the other hand, a number of the nobles of the Liao Dynasty escaped the area westward towards Western Regions, establishing the short-lived Kara-Khitan or Western Liao dynasty. They were in turn absorbed by the local Turkic and Iranic populations and left no influence of themselves. As the Khitan language is still almost completely illegible, it is difficult to create a detailed history of their movements.

Historical atlas

400	500	600
700	800	900
1025	1200

See also

Khitan portal

Sub-studies

• Pre-Dynastic Khitan (388-907), before the Liao empire (include in this article)
• Liao Dynasty (907-1125), the Khitan Empire.
• Kara-Khitan Khanate (1125-1211), the kingdom set up by escaped Khitans

Ethnic and states context

• Origines: Donghu → Xiongnu → Xianbei → Kumo Xi → Khitan
• Steppes (west) : Rouran (4th to 6th), Turkish Empire (5th to 8th) and Uyghur Empire (8th and 9th centuries), Kumo Xi
• China (south) : Northern dynasties (5 and 6th, especially Northern Wei), Tang (7 to 10th c.), Song Dynasty
• From East: Goguryeo, Jurchen, Goryeo (Goryeo-Khitan Wars)
• From North: Rouran, Didouyu, Mohe

See also Ethnic groups in Chinese history

Major Khitan characters

• Li Jinzhong (d. 696) and Sun Wanrong (d. 697)
• Ketuyu (d. 734)
• Abaoji (Taizu)

See also List of the Khitan rulers

Other

• Buraq Hajib
• Eagle hunting
• Khitan script

Notes

References

Pre-dynastic Khitan

• Xu Elina-Qian, Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005. 273 pages. (for pre-907)
• MATSUI, Hitoshi 松井等 (Japan). "Qidan boxing shi 契丹勃興史 (History of the rise of the Khitan)". Mamden chiri-rekishi kenkyu hokoku 1 (1915).
  Translated into Chinese by Liu, Fengzhu 劉鳳翥. In Minzu Shi Yiwen Ji 民族史譯文集 (A Collection of Translated Papers on Ethnic Histories) 10 (1981). Repr. in: Sun, Jinji et al. 1988 (vol. 1), pp. 93-141
• Chen, Shu 陳述. Qidan Shi Lunzheng Gao 契丹史論證稿 (A Study on the History of the Khitan). Beijing: Zhongyang Yanjiu Yuan Shixue Yanjiu Suo 中央研究院史學研究所, 1948.
• Chen, Shu 陳述. Qidan Shehui Jingji Shi Gao 契丹社會經濟史稿 (A Study on the Khitan's Social Economical History). Shanghai: Sanlian Chuban She 三聯出版社, 1963.
• Feng, Jiasheng 1933.

Liao Dynasty

• Shu, Fen (舒焚), Liaoshi Gao 遼史稿 (An History of the Liao). Wuhan: Hubei Renmin Chuban She 湖北人民出版社, 1984
• WITTFOGEL, Karl & FENG, Chia-sheng. History of Chinese Society: Liao (907-1125). Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1949.

Post-Dynastic / Qara Khitai

• Biran, Michal. The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World, ISBN 0521842263

Useful official dynastic histories

• Wei Shu 魏史 (Dynastic History of the Northern Wei Dynasty): Wei, Shou 魏收 et al. eds. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1973.
• Xin Wudai Shi (XWDS) 新五代史 (New Dynastic History of the Five Dynasties): Ouyang, Xiu 歐陽修 et al. eds. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1974.
• Sui Shu (SS) 隋書 (Dynastic History of the Sui Dynasty): Wei Zheng 魏徵 et al. eds. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1973.
• Jiu Tangshu (JTS) 舊唐書 (Old Dynastic History of Tang Dynasty): Liu, Xu 劉昫 et al. eds. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1975.
• Xin Tangshu (XTS) 新唐書 (New Dynastic History of the Tang Dynasty): Ouyang, Xiu 歐陽修 et al. eds. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1975
• Liao Shi (LS) 遼史 (Dynastic History of the Khitan Liao Dynasty): Tuotuo 脱脱 et al. eds. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1974
• Song Shi 宋史 (History of Song): Tuotuo 脫脫 et al. eds. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1974
• Zizhi Tongjian (ZZTJ) 資治通鑒 (Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government): Sima, Guang 司馬光 ed. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 1956

Other

• Mote, F.W. (1999). Imperial China: 900-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 31–71. ISBN 0674012127. 
• EBREY, Patricia Buckley (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66991-X. 
• TWITCHETT, Denis (1994). The Cambridge History of China: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368. Cambridge University Press. pp. 816. ISBN 0-521-24331-9.  (pp. 43-153)
• Khitans
• Khitans on scholar.google.com