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Konstantin Melnikov

 
Biography: Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov
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Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov (1890-1974) was one of the Russian avant-garde's most prolific and internationally celebrated architects during the 1920s. By 1937 the individualism of his architecture no longer had a place in Stalin's U.S.S.R.

Konstantin Melnikov was born a peasant on the outskirts of Moscow in 1890. Young Melnikov showed an early proclivity for drawing and began to attend the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture. After completing the general education program, he studied painting, and then resolved to be an architect. He stayed on at the Moscow School, completing the architecture program in 1917. As seen in his surviving student projects, Melnikov's education in architecture was conservative, emphasizing the classical architectural tradition. Although he would quickly move away from historical revivalism, the monumental forms of some of his later modern works occasionally suggested the undercurrent of his classical training.

Melnikov entered the profession of architecture during the year of the Bolshevik Revolution. The political, social, and economic demands upon architecture in the emerging Soviet Union were to be very different from those of Melnikov's youth and training in tsarist Russia. The economic desperation of Russia due to World War I, revolution, and the subsequent civil war resulted in few opportunities for real construction for a young architect. Like many of his architectural colleagues, Melnikov spent his first years after the communist revolution working primarily on paper architecture: unbuilt projects, often for competitions, with an emphasis upon defining a modern architecture appropriate for building a new socialist society.

During the early 1920s Melnikov taught architecture at VKhUTEMAS, a Moscow school popular with avant-garde artists and architects. With the coming of Lenin's New Economic Policy, modest opportunities to build were being presented to Melnikov. One of his important early works was the Makhorka Pavilion, built in Moscow to promote a native tobacco at the All-Russian Agricultural and Cottage Industry Exhibition of 1923. Jutting diagonals, factory-like windows, large graphics, and a spiral staircase animated the bold geometric forms of this small wooden structure. Melnikov's classical training was now distant as he worked through the dynamic and abstract aesthetic language of modernism.

Melnikov was beginning to emerge as a favored architect in the new Soviet Union. In 1924 he designed Lenin's glass-topped sarcophagus that was placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum on Red Square. Melnikov then found himself on the international architectural stage when he won a closed competition to be the architect of the Soviet Pavilion at the 1925 Exposition des Arts Décoratifs in Paris. Melnikov's pavilion announced to the West the startling modern accomplishments of the avant-garde in the U.S.S.R. The building's austere geometric planes and walls of glass were brought into dynamic tension through a dramatic outdoor stairway that sliced diagonally through the heart of the building. Despite the modernity of the forms, the structure was framed in wood, as were several of his early buildings. Melnikov was defining a new architecture while transforming the wooden structures of his own peasant origins.

After his success in Paris, Melnikov built a number of structures in the Moscow area, including an impressive series of six workers' clubs. Workers' clubs in the Soviet Union were intended to be new centers of community life, providing cultural and recreational activities for the workers. Melnikov designed each club with a unique landmark image, as most dramatically seen in his Rusakov Club in Moscow (1927-1929), an expressive wedge-shaped building. The functional considerations of acoustics and flexibility in the interior of this workers' club generated the building's powerful forms. The dynamism of this building and others by Melnikov was particularly captured in the contemporary photographs of Alexander Rodchenko.

Melnikov was not the typical Russian avant-garde architect; he was constructing many buildings, not just drawing them. Melnikov even built his own private house with studio in Moscow (1927-1929). This highly original design consists of two interlocking upright cylinders with numerous elongated hexagonal windows and a large front wall of glass. The house was built with traditional Russian materials (stuccoed brick for exterior walls and wood for floors) used structurally in inventive ways. Such buildings by Melnikov asserted a strong individualism in a country where Stalin was consolidating his growing powers into a dictatorship.

In comparison to the 1920s, Melnikov would build very little during the 1930s. He unsuccessfully entered architectural competitions with increasingly fantastic and theatrical designs, such as his grandiose projects for the Palace of Soviets (1931-1932) and the headquarters of the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry (1934). The scale of these two unbuilt structures by Melnikov would have dwarfed Moscow's Kremlin in attempts to monumentally symbolize the triumphs of the Soviet Union.

In the 1920s, during the heyday of avant-garde architecture in the Soviet Union, the formalism of the Rationalists contrasted with the functional and structural preoccupations of the Constructivists. By the 1930s neither side of this Modernist debate was fully answering the Stalinist call for socialist realism in architecture. The avant-garde withered as Soviet architects turned upon each other in attempts to define what was wrong in contemporary architecture. Although the individualist Melnikov preferred to remain above the fray of factional divisions among Soviet architects, the categorization of Melnikov by some as a formalist most concerned with novel aesthetics would be his professional undoing. At the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Architects in 1937, Melnikov was strongly denounced, and his career as an active architect essentially came to an end.

Melnikov lived until 1974 - painting, drawing, and writing in his unique Moscow house. He occasionally designed buildings that were never built, such as his 1962 Soviet Pavilion project proposed for the 1964 New York World's Fair. Finally, during the last decade of his life, Konstantin Melnikov began to receive growing attention for his earlier achievements from the Soviet and international scholarly communities.

Further Reading

An important monograph on Melnikov is S. Frederick Starr, Melnikov: Solo Architect in a Mass Society (1978). Starr interviewed Melnikov and had access to the family's archive of Melnikov's works. Concise discussions of Melnikov can be found in the following: William Craft Brumfield, A History of Russian Architecture (1993); Alexander Ryabushin and Nadia Smolina, Landmarks of Soviet Architecture 1917-1991 (1992); Catherine Cooke and Justin Ageros, eds., The Avant-Garde: Russian Architecture in the Twenties (1991); Catherine Cooke, Architectural Drawings of the Russian Avant-Garde (1990); Selim O. Khan-Magomedov, Pioneers of Soviet Architecture: The Search for New Solutions in the 1920s and 1930s (1987); O.A. Shvidkovsky, ed., Building in the USSR 1917-1932 (1971); and Anatole Kopp, Town and Revolution: Soviet Architecture and City Planning 1917-1935 (1970).

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Russian History Encyclopedia: Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov
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(1908 - 1974), a leading theoretician among modernist architects.

Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov rose to fame in the West as a result of his design for the Soviet Pavilion at the Paris Exhibition of Decorative Arts in 1925, a building marked by its dramatic formal simplicity and avoidance of decorative rhetoric, bold use of color, windowed front facade, and unusual exterior staircase that cut diagonally across the rectangular two-storied building. But his most impressive work in the Soviet Union was his club architecture, none more striking than the Rusakov Club, designed and built between 1927 and 1929 for the Union of Municipal Workers.

A graduate of the prestigious Moscow school of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, Melnikov in 1920 joined the Soviet parallel to the Bauhaus, the Higher State Artistic and Technical Studios (VKhUTEMAS), where the struggle for control over the direction of revolutionary architecture was fought until discussion was terminated by a new Stalinist orthodoxy. Melnikov refused to join either of the two competing architectural organizations, but remained closely associated with the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA), especially in his quest for a new "architectural language" for the age. Despite this association, his work influenced architects in both camps. Melnikov concerned himself with the functional demands of a building and with the rational organization of the composition. But he was most concerned with devising a unique expressive appearance that would unite spatial organization with innovative interior design, employing such forms that would make the buildings appear "as individualists against the general backdrop of urban building." Melnikov's architectural language consisted of elementary geometric forms such as cylinders, cones, and parallelepipeds. It is the cylinder that forms the basis for Melnikov's own home, built between 1927 and 1929 on Krivoarbatsky Lane off Moscow's famed Arbat.

In 1937 Melnikov was accused of practicing the grotesquerie of formalism and of obstructing and perverting the resolution of the problem of the type and form of Soviet architecture. He was driven from architectural practice.

Bibliography

Khan-Magomedov, Selim Omarovich. (1987). Pioneers of Soviet Architecture: The Search for New Solutions in the 1920s and 1930s. New York: Rizzoli.

Starr, S. Frederick. (1978). Melnikov: Solo Architect in a Mass Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

—HUGH D. HUDSON JR.

Wikipedia: Konstantin Melnikov
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Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov
Melnikov kauchuk club.jpg
1920s photo: Konstantin Melnikov in front of his Kauchuk Club
Personal information
Name Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov
Nationality Russia
Birth date August 3, 1890(1890-08-03)
Birth place Moscow
Date of death November 28, 1974 (aged 84)
Place of death Moscow
Work
Practice Own practice (1923-1933)

Mossover Planning Workshop No.7 (1933-1937)
Buildings Rusakov Workers' Club and 5 other trade union clubs in Moscow and Likino-Dulyovo

Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov (Russian: Константин Степанович Мельников; August 3 [O.S. July 22] 1890, Moscow - November 28, 1974, id.) was a Russian architect and painter. His architectural work, compressed into a single decade (1923-1933), placed Melnikov on the front end of 1920s avant-garde architecture. Although associated with the Constructivists, Melnikov was an independent artist, not bound by the rules of a particular style or artistic group. In 1930s, Melnikov refused to conform with the rising stalinist architecture, withdrew from practice and worked as a portrait painter and teacher until the end of his life.

Contents

Biography

Childhood

Svoboda Club in northern Moscow was Melnikov's tribute to the land of his childhood

Konstantin Melnikov was born a fourth child in a family. His father, Stepan Illarionovich Melnikov, originally from Nizhny Novgorod region, was a road maintenance foreman, employed by the Moscow Agricultural Academy. Mother, Yelena Grigorievna (née Repkina), came from the peasants of Zvenigorod district. The whole family occupied a single room of a state-managed working class barrack in Hay Lodge (Соломенная Сторожка),[1] then a quiet northern suburb of Moscow. Melnikovs tried hard to rise above bitter poverty, to return to farming and eventually relocated to their own small house and set their own dairy farm. Konstantin Melnikov later praised his father, who noticed little boy's addiction to drawing and regularly brought him scrap paper for drawing from the Academy. However, all the education they could afford was a two-year parish school (completed in 1903)[2].

Education

Konstantin met his "golden day in life" ("это был золотой день в моей жизни") [3] through a milk delivery woman, who happened to serve the family of Vladimir Chaplin, a wealthy engineer. She recommended Konstantin's drawings to Chaplin, who was so impressed that he hired the teenager to his firm and paid for his art studies. Chaplin overestimated Melnikov's basic education, and Konstantin failed his grammar test at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture in 1904. One year later, he passed the admissions that selected a class of 11 out of 270 applicants. Melnikov studied at the School for 12 years, first completing General Education (1910), then graduating in Arts (1914) and Architecture (1917)[4]. Despite Chaplin's calls to concentrate on architecture, Melnikov leaned to painting; by the time he joined the Architecture classes, he already was a well-recognized portrait painter. Later, he recalled Konstantin Korovin, Sergey Malyutin and Abram Arkhipov as his mentors in art; as for architecture, he gave his regards only to Ivan Zholtovsky, his professor in 1917-1918. [5]

Melnikov married Anna Yablokova in 1912; they had two children, born in 1913 and 1915.

Early career

During World War I and the first years after Russian Revolution of 1917, Melnikov worked within the Neoclassical tradition. Before the Revolution, he was involved in AMO Truck Plant project. In 1918-1920, he was employed by the New Moscow planning workshop headed by Zholtovsky and Alexey Shchusev, designing Khodynka and Butyrsky District sectors of the city. Meanwhile, the Russian educational system collapsed; the new art college, VKhUTEMAS, was formed in 1920. Its architectural faculty was split between three factions: An Academic Workshop (Ivan Zholtovsky), left-wing United Workshops (Nikolai Ladovsky), and a joint workshop of Melnikov and Ilya Golosov, known as New Academy and Workshop No.2. Melnikov and Golosov resisted both the academic and left-wing camps; in 1924, when the management merged New Academy with Academic Workshop, Melnikov quit VKhUTEMAS.[6] In 1923-1924, Melnikov temporarily associated himself with the ASNOVA and LEF artistic groups, however, he was not involved in public disputes and made no public statements. In particular, he clearly distanced himself from the Constructivist group, led by Moisei Ginzburg and Alexander Vesnin.

His first success in architecture was a 1922 entry to a workers' housing contest. Codenamed Atom, Melnikov's design employed the sawtooth arrangement of units that became his trademark in later works. Unlike other, "revolutionary" projects, Atom was based on traditional single-family townhouse and apartment units.[7]

Melnikov's first materialized works were short-lived, temporary buildings. The first, a 1923 pavilion for the All-Russian Agriculture and Handicraft Exhibition, featured more Melnikov trademarks:

  • Raised cubical shapes are offset from supporting columns
  • Combination of single-sloped roofs
  • Glazed corners[8]

The latter feature is shared with the Constructivists; single-sloped, angled roof was against the constructivist canon but a good match to existing technologies: Soviet industry of 1920s did not have the technology for reliable flat roofing.[9]

Melnikov Garage

Melnikov's concept floorplan, Bakhmetevsky Garage

In 1925 Melnikov designed and built the Soviet pavilion at the Paris Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes. The wooden pavilion, employing a combination of single-sloped roofs of different sizes, was regarded as being one of the most progressive buildings at the fair. Unlike other Paris pavilions, it was completed in less than a month, employing not more than 10 workers.[10]

Still in Paris, Melnikov designed two privately-commissioned version of a ramped garage that never got past the conceptual drawing stage. The second version of this project, according to Andrés Jaque's studies, has been strongly influential in contemporary architectects like Rem Koolhaas, especially in his proposal for the National Library of France]] or Foreign Office's Yokohama Terminal. However, Melnikov found a useful pattern of placing cars in a garage (again, a sawtooth pattern) where cars could park and leave without using reverse gear. The second In Moscow, Melnikov saw a new fleet of Leyland Buses hoarded in a yard in Zamoskvorechye, and immediately proposed his concept to the city. The result, Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage, housed 104 buses on 8500 square meters of an unconventional, parallelogram-shaped floorplan with Vladimir Shukhov's roof system.[11]

Intourist Garage, the only facade remaining to date

Melnikov later called this project "the start of my Golden Season".[12] Bakhmetevsky Garage, sometimes incorrectly called a constructivist landmark, was very modestly styled in an indefinite "industrial" red brick. Melnikov's later garage buildings, on the contrary, possessed a clear avant-garde external styling (which has become badly damaged over time):

Melnikov Clubs

Rusakov Club, 1927

The "golden season" of 1927 continued with a chain of trade union commissions for workers' clubs. "Beginning in 1927, my influence developed into a monopoly takeover... that's how love will treat you if she really loves you" ("Начиная с 1927, мой авторитет вырос в монопольный захват... вот так поступит любовь и с Вами, если она Вас полюбит").[14]

Nation-wide construction of new, dedicated buildings for workers' clubs (combining propaganda, educational and community center functions) was launched in 1926 and peaked in 1927, when trade unions commissioned 30 clubs in Moscow region (10 in the city of Moscow). Melnikov won five of these ten projects (his sixth club is located in Likino-Dulyovo). Absence of public contests for these buildings was favorable to Melnikov, who was promoted by enthusiastic trade union commissioners, regardless of design compexity or political and artistic affiliations. He had a chance to build practically exactly as planned, with very little changes by the client (notably, omission of swimming pools). [15]

All six workers' clubs of this period differ in shape, size, and functional set. Melnikov's clients (the unions) were not competent in exact functions of these buildings, thus each Melnikov draft is also a functional program with different balance between main hall and other space. The club, according to Melnikov, is not a single fixed theater hall, but a flexible system of different halls that may be united into a single, large volume when necessary. His larger main halls can be divided into three (Rusakov Club) or two (Svoboda Club) independent halls.

One common feature of his clubs - bold use of exterior stairs - is actually a consequence of 1920s building codes that required wide internal staircase for fire evacuation. Melnikov, in an attempt to save interior space, connected the main halls to exterior galleries, which was not regulated by the code. [16]

Melnikov House

Rear of the Melnikov House
The Melnikov House, as seen from Krivoarbatsky Street

The finest existing specimen of Melnikov's work is his own Krivoarbatsky Lane residence in Moscow, completed in 1927-1929, which consists of two intersecting cylindrical towers decorated with a pattern of hexagonal windows. His flow of commissions in 1926-1927 provided enough money to finance a three-story house of his dreams. At this time, many well-to-do Russians were lured into building their own city houses; Melnikov was one of the few who managed to retain his property after the fall of New Economic Policy. His request for land (790 square meters) had few chances to pass the district commission; to his surprise, a working class commissioner supported him, saying that "we can build public buildings anytime and anywhere, but we may never see this unusual house completed if we reject Melnikov".[17] The city endorsed Melnikov's draft as an experimental, one-of-a-kind project.

Melnikov preferred to work at home, and always wanted a spacious residence that could house his family, architectural and painting workshops. As the Russian idiom says, he designed the house starting "from the oven"; existing white oven in his living room dates back to his 1920 drawings.[18] Floorplan evolved from a plain square to a circle and an egg shape, without much attention to exterior finishes. Melnikov developed the concept of intersecting cylinders in 1925-1926 for his Zuev Workers' Club draft (he lost the contest to Ilya Golosov). Twin cylinder floorplan was approved by the city in June, 1927 and was revised during construction. [19]

The towers, top to bottom, are a honeycomb lattice made of brickwork. 60 of more than 200 cells were glazed with windows (of three different frame designs), the rest filled with clay and scrap. This unorthodox design was a direct consequence of material rationing by the state - Melnikov was limited to brick and wood, and even these were in short supply. The wooden ceilings have no supporting columns, nor horizontal girders. They were formed by a rectangular grid of flat planks, in a sort of orthotropic deck. The largest room, a 50 square meter workshop on the third floor, is lit with 38 hexagonal windows; equally large living room has a single wide window above the main entrance.[20]

In 1929, Melnikov proposed the same system of intersecting cylinders and cheap honeycomb structure for apartment blocks, which did not materialize.

The own house built by Konstantin Melnikov - the recognized masterpiece of architecture – is a honeycomb lattice shell made of bricks with hexahedral cells.[21] The similar lattice shells out of metal were patented and built by Vladimir Shukhov in 1896. Melnikov built his house in 1927-1929, and by that time in Russia there had been already built about 200 Shukhov’s steel lattice shells as the overhead covers of buildings, hyperboloid water and other towers, including the famous 160 meter radio tower in Moscow (1922). Since Melnikov and Shukhov were well acquainted with each other and made joint projects (Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage, Novo-Ryazanskaya Street Garage), it is not surprising that the Melnikov’s house in Krivoarbatsky pereulok was built in the form of an original lattice shell. The overhead covers of the own Мelnikov’s house are the honeycomb lattice shells made of wooden boards placed edgewise.[22]

End of career

Throughout 1933-1937, Melnikov, as a leader of Mossovet Seventh Planning Workshop, was involved in city planning projects for the south-western sector of Moscow (Arbat Square and Khamovniki District); none of them materialized. The assignment looked like an appreciation of his talent, but in fact separated Melnikov from actual construction projects.

His final public statement was a 1936 contest entry for the Soviet pavilion at 1937 World Expo in Paris; he lost the contest to Boris Iofan. By 1937, mounting criticism against formalism led to virtual excommunication of Melnikov from practice. He was not exactly forgotten; on the contrary, his Rusakov Club and Arbat house were present in many Soviet textbooks as examples of formalism.

Despite the damning status of alien artist, Melnikov retained his Arbat house and lived there with his family, safely, until his death. He returned to portrait painting and lectured at engineering colleges. Melnikov also designed privately commissioned, unimportant architectural jobs - summer houses, shop interiors, some of which materialized. [23]

Melnikov returned to the public contest stage four times:

In 1960s, Melnikov enjoyed a brief revival of interest in his architecture. His 75th birthday (1965) was officially celebrated by the House of Architects in Moscow; in 1967 and 1972 he was awarded honorary titles of Doctor of Architecture and Meritorious Architect.

Melnikov died at 84 and was interred at Vvedenskoye Cemetery in Lefortovo District of Moscow. His son, Viktor, also a painter, lived and worked at the Arbat house, and fought to have it preserved as a museum until his death in February 2006. The house contains a significant portion of Konstantin S. Melnikov's archive.

Buildings

Years are referenced to [24]

Completed buildings

Melnikov's original color scheme of recently restored Svoboda Club
  • 1915–1917 - Junior architect for the AMO Truck Plant housing and offices, Moscow (destroyed)
  • 1923 - Makhorka Pavilion for the All Russian Agricultural and Handicraft Industries Exhibition, Moscow (destroyed)
  • 1924–1925 - New Sukharev Market in Moscow (destroyed)
  • 1925 - Competition entry for the USSR Pavilion of the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, Paris (destroyed)
  • 1926–1927 - Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage, 11 Obraztsova Street, Moscow
  • 1927–1929: The "Golden Season" of Melnikov
  • 1930–1931 - Reconstruction of Kamerny Theater in Moscow
  • 1934–1936 - Intourist Garage, Aviamotornaya Street, Moscow
  • 1934–1936 - Gosplan Garage, 33 Suschevsky Val Street, Moscow
  • 1937–1938 - Novinsky Boulevard planning, Moscow
  • 1945–1947 - Exterior paint scheme design for Mikoyan Slaughterhouses, Moscow (destroyed)

Selected competition entries and concepts

Narkomtiazhprom concept for Red Square, 1934
  • 1918–1920 - Drafts of workers' housing, Alexeyevskaya Hospital housing and the People's House in Moscow (not related to his 1922 drafts)
  • 1921–1923 - Competition entry for workers' housing and for the Palace of Labour, Moscow (never built)
  • 1921–1923 - Butyrsky District and Khodynka planning for the New Moscow master plan (never completed)
  • 1924 - Design of Lenin's sarcophagus (awarded to Alexey Shchusev, author of first, temporary Mausoleum)
  • 1924–1925 - Competition entry for the Moscow bureau of the newspaper Leningrad Pravda [1] (won by Vesnin brothers, never built)
  • 1925 - Garage concepts for the new Seine bridges in Paris
  • 1927 - Zuev Workers' Club, Moscow (awarded to Ilya Golosov, see executed building)
  • 1929 - Competition entry for the Monument of Christopher Columbus, Santo Domingo.[2] (never built)
  • 1932–1933 - Competition entry for the Palace of the Soviets (project awarded to Boris Iofan and Vladimir Shchuko, never built)
  • 1934 - Competition entry for the Narkomtiazhprom building, Red Square, Moscow (never built)
  • 1934–1936 - Planning drafts for Luzhniki, Kotelnicheskaya Embankment and other city planning proposals
  • 1936 - Competition entry for the Soviet Pavilion at the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937) (awarded to Boris Iofan, completed and destroyed in 1936)
  • 1954–1955 - Competition entries for the Pantheon and the monument to 300 years of Russian-Ukrainian Unity (never built)
  • 1958–1959 - Competition entry for the Palace of the Soviets (post-war round, never built)
  • 1962 - USSR Pavilion for the World Expo in New York City
  • 1967 - Competition entry for the cinema in Arbat Street (never built)

References

Sources

Footnotes

  1. ^ Common English translation of Hay Lodge is incorrect; actually, it is Straw, not hay. The name refers to cob or adobe walls of those workers' barracks.
  2. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.29-30
  3. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.32, quotes Melnikov's own writing
  4. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.32-34
  5. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.44
  6. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.52
  7. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.58
  8. ^ Khan-Magomedov, pp.59, 71
  9. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.71
  10. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.102
  11. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.108
  12. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.106
  13. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.110-119
  14. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.124
  15. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.118-121, 139
  16. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.138
  17. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.181
  18. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.162
  19. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.177
  20. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.191
  21. ^ http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Melnikov%26his_wife.jpg?uselang=ru
  22. ^ http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Perekrytiya.jpg
  23. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.248
  24. ^ Khan-Magomedov, p.291-293

External links

Gallery

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Completed buildings

|Kauchuk Club (2007 photo)

Likino-Dulyovo Club (1965 photo, Melnikov in the foreground)

Svoboda Factory Club (2007 photo)

Own house, main entrance and living room window

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