LGBT rights in Mexico

LGBT rights in Mexico
Mexico
Same-sex sexual activity legal?	Legal since 1871
Gender identity/expression	Transgender persons can change their legal gender and name in Mexico City since 2008
Recognition of relationships	Same-sex marriage in Mexico City (effective March 2010). Civil unions in Mexico City and Coahuila since 2007.
Adoption	Joint adoption legal in Mexico City (effective March 2010). Nationwide, single gay persons may adopt.
Discrimination protections	Sexual orientation protection nationwide since 2003 (see below)

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) rights in Mexico have expanded in recent years, in keeping with worldwide legal trends. The intellectual influence of the French Revolution and the brief French occupation of Mexico (1862-67) resulted in the adoption of the Napoleonic Penal Code, which decriminalized homosexuality in 1871. However, laws against public immorality or indecency could be used against homosexual acts. The age of consent at which there are no restrictions for consensual sexual activities, regardless of sexual orientation, is 18. Mexican states have a "primary" age of consent, which may be as low as 12, and sexual conduct with persons below that age is always illegal. Sexual relations between adults and teenagers are left in a legal gray area, with situational laws that are subject to interpretation.

The social environment in most of Mexico remains repressive, and often dangerous. Machista ideals of manly appearance and behavior contribute to extreme prejudices against LGBT people, especially effeminate men, and often to violence against them. Lack of interest in investigating such cases is common and police often assumes that homosexuals are responsible for the attacks against them. The Roman Catholic teaching that homosexuality is a sin further contributes to intolerance, and is seen to provide moral sanction for mistreatment.

Nonetheless, as the influence of foreign and internal cultures, especially from progressive Mexico City, grows in all of Mexico, attitudes are beginning to change. Remarkably in the largest metropolitan areas such as Guadalajara, Monterrey and Tijuana, where education and access to foreigners and foreign news media are greatest. But change continues to be slow in the hinterlands, and even in the big cities discomfort with change often leads to backlashes. Tolerance for sexual diversity in certain indigenous cultures is widely seen, especially among Isthmus Zapotecs and Yucatán Mayas. Since the early 1970s, influenced by the U.S. gay liberation movement and the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre, a substantial number of LGBT organizations has emerged, and visible and well-attended LGBT marches and pride parades have occurred in Mexico City since 1979 and in Guadalajara since 1996.

Political and legal gains have been made through the center-left Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), and other leftist but minor parties such as the Labor Party (PT) and Convergence, and occasionally the centrist and long-governing Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Some of them include the 2001 amendment to Article 1 of the Federal Constitution to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation under the vague term preferences, the 2003 federal anti-discrimination law and the recognition of same-sex civil unions in Mexico City and Coahuila. Recently, Mexico City legalized same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples, the law will become effective in March 2010.

Contents 1 Timeline 2 History 2.1 Precolumbian era 2.2 Viceroyalty of New Spain 2.3 Independent Mexico 2.4 Dance of the forty-one 2.5 Society in the twentieth century 2.6 LGBT movement 3 Societal prejudices and terminologies 3.1 Machismo 3.2 Roman Catholic Church 4 Tolerance among indigenous peoples 5 Anti-discrimination laws 6 Violence 7 LGBT influence on politics 8 Civil unions and same-sex marriage 8.1 Mexico City 8.2 Coahuila 8.3 Other states 9 LGBT social life 10 LGBT Tourism 11 LGBT cultural life 11.1 Cinema 11.2 Television 11.3 Arts and literature 11.4 Mass media and other publications 12 HIV and AIDS issues 13 Footnotes 14 See also 15 References 16 External links

Timeline

• 1569: Official inquisitorial tribunals were created in Mexico City by Philip II. Homosexuality was a prime concern, which inflicted stiff fines, spiritual penances, public humiliations, and floggings for sexual sins.
• 1821: Mexican independence from Spain brought an end to the Inquisition and colonial homosexual oppression.
• 1871: The intellectual influence of the French Revolution and the brief French occupation of Mexico (1862-67) resulted in the adoption of the Napoleonic Penal Code. This meant that sexual conduct in private between adults, whatever their gender, ceased to be a criminal matter.
• 1901: On 20 November, Mexico City police raided an affluent drag ball, arresting 42 cross-dressed men. But one was released, supposedly a close relative to President Porfirio Díaz. The resulting scandal, known as the "Dance of the 41 Maricones", received massive press coverage.
• 1959: Mayor Ernesto Uruchurtu closed every gay bar in Mexico City under the guise of "cleaning up vice", or at least reducing its visibility.
• 1971: The Homosexual Liberation Front (Frente de Liberación Homosexual), one of the first LGBT groups in Latin America, was organized in response to the firing of a Sears employee because of his supposedly homosexual behavior.
• 1979: The country's first LGBT Pride Parade was held in Mexico City.
• 1982: Max Mejía, Pedro Preciado and Claudia Hinojosa became the first openly gay politicians to run for seats in the Federal Congress.
• 1991: Mexico hosted a meeting of the International Gay and Lesbian Association (ILGA), the first it had met outside of Europe.
• 1997: Patria Jiménez, a lesbian activist, was selected for a proportional representation in the Federal Chamber of Deputies representing the center-left Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).
• 1999: In August, the First Meeting of Lesbians and Lesbian Feminists was held in Mexico City. From this meeting evolved an organized effort for expanded LGBT rights in the country’s capital.

In September, Mexico City passed an ordinance banning discrimination based on sexual orientation, the first of its kind in the country at the time.

• 2000: Enoé Uranga, an openly lesbian politician, proposed a bill that would have legalized same-sex civil unions in Mexico City. However, the local legislature decided not to take up the bill, following widespread opposition from right-wing groups.
• 2001: Article 1 from the Federal Constitution was amended to prohibit discrimination based, among other factors, on sexual orientation under the vague term preferences.
• 2003: On 29 April, a federal anti-discrimination law was passed. Immediately, a national council was created to enforce it.

Amaranta Gómez became the first transgender woman to run as a candidate for a seat in the Federal Congress.

• 2006: On 9 November, Mexico City legalized same-sex civil unions.
• 2007: On 11 January, the northern state of Coahuila legalized same-sex civil unions.

On 31 January, the country's first same-sex civil union was performed in Saltillo, Coahuila.

• 2008: On 29 August, Mexico City passed a law that allows transgender people to change their legal gender and name.
• 2009: On 21 December, Mexico City's Legislative Assembly passed a bill that would legalize same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples. Eight days later, Head of Government ("Mayor") Marcelo Ebrard signed the bill into law.

Miguel Galán, from the extinct Social Democratic Party (PSD), became the first openly gay politician to run for a mayorship in the country.

• 2010: In March, same-sex marriage and LGBT adoption will become effective.

History

Precolumbian era

Among Mayans, there was a strong association between ritual and homosexual behavior. Some shamans engaged in homosexual acts with their patients, and priests engaged in ritualized homosexual acts with their gods.^[1] Teen-aged males were given pubescent boys to serve as partners until marriage, at which time the younger partner was given a pubescent boy of his own.^[2] When the Toltecs arrived to conquer the region, they brought more sodomy and public sex of all kinds. Then when Itzá conquered the area, they brought more sodomy, more eroticism and extensive sexual ceremonies.^[1]

The Zapotecs of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southeastern Mexico did not develop a culture of conquest, which may explain their relaxed attitude toward masculinity.^[3] Homosexual behavior was common among males of all ages. Boys began having sex with other males during puberty and would continue having sex with other men through their twenties. By the time they were thirty most males were married and had children, but as with the Mayans, homosexual relations continued even after marriage. In fact, it was not uncommon for a Zapotec man to leave a marriage after his children were grown and move in with another male lover.^[4] The Zapotecs developed the concept of a third gender, which they referred to as muxe, as an intermediate between male and female who played both gender roles in everyday life.^[3] To date, muxes still exist among Zapotec people and play a crucial role within the community.

In the Valley of Mexico, the Aztecs lived in urban centers such as Texcoco, Tlatelolco, and Tenochitlan. From there, they politically dominated most of Mesoamerica and extracted a heavy tribute of raw materials, finished products, slaves, and sacrificial victims.^[5] The Aztecs exhibited a profound duality in their approach to sexual behavior. On one hand, they held public rituals which were at times very erotic, but on the other, they were extremely prudish in everyday life. In their pantheon, the Aztecs worshiped a deity, Xochiquetzal, who was the goddess of non-procreative sexuality and love, and both female and male at the same time. In her male aspect, called Xochipilli, was worshiped as the deity of male homosexuality and male prostitution.^[6] In the majority of cases, they allowed the people they conquered to maintain their own customs. Nonetheless, Aztecs placed a high premium on "manly", "assertive" behavior, and a corresponding stigma on "submissive" behavior. When conquered people were not sacrificed on temple altars, the males of conquered nations were often demoted to the status of women.^[7] The penalties for male homosexual intercourse were severe. In Tenochtitlan, they hanged homosexuals. In nearby Texcoco, the active partner was "bound to a stake, completely covered with ashes and so left to die; the entrails of the passive agent were drawn out through his anus, he was then covered with ashes, and wood being added, the pile was ignited."^[7]

Viceroyalty of New Spain

The Spaniards were shocked to observe homosexual behavior elsewhere in the New World. They had encountered a cultural tradition unknown to Europe but common to many indigenous tribes in North and South America: publicly recognized gender role reversal. As described by Fernandez de Oviedo on his 1526 "Natural History of the Indies":

"Very common among the indians in many parts is the nefarious sin against the nature, even in public the indians are headmen [...] have youths with whom they use this accursed sin, and those consenting youths as soon as they fall into this guilt wear naguas (skirts) like women [...] and they wear strings of beads and bracelets and the other things used by women as adornment; and they do not exercise in the use of weapons, nor do anything proper to men, but they occupy themselves in the usual chores of the house such as to sweep and wash and other things customary for women."

– Fernandez de Oviedo.^[8]

As conquerors, the Spanish sought to justify the subordination of native peoples. When they encountered cultures that sanctioned male-male sexual relations, they immediately labeled such behavior "sodomy," after the biblical city of Sodom, which was said to have been destroyed by God for the sinful behavior of its inhabitants.^[9] That the biblical sin in question was the failure to show hospitality to strangers was irrelevant in the light of subsequent ecclesiastical interpretation, which ascribed it to homosexuality.^[9] Thus homosexual behavior among many of the native peoples became one of several theological justifications for the destruction of their culture, subjugation of their societies, and conversion to Roman Catholicism.^[10]

In 1569, official inquisitorial tribunals had been created in Mexico City by Philip II. Homosexuality was a prime concern of the [episcopal] Inquisition, which inflicted stiff fines, spiritual penances, public humiliations, and floggings for sexual sins.^[11] In 1662, the Mexican Inquisition complained that homosexuality was common, especially among the clergy, and asked for jurisdiction on the grounds that the secular courts were not sufficiently vigilant. The request was denied. In fact, the civil authorities, under the 8th Duke of Albuquerque, had recently been extremely active, indicting a hundred men for sodomy and executing a substantial number. People accused of homosexuality were publicly executed by mass burnings in San Lázaro, Mexico City.^[11]

Independent Mexico

Mexican independence from Spain in 1821 brought an end to the Inquisition and the colonial homosexual oppression. The intellectual influence of the French Revolution and the brief French occupation of Mexico (1862-67) resulted in the adoption of the Napoleonic Penal Code. This meant that sexual conduct in private between adults, whatever their gender, ceased to be a criminal matter.^[12] In matters concerning homosexuality, the Mexican government held that law should not invade the terrain of the individual moral conscience, in order to protect the precious concerns of sexual freedom and security; and that the law should limit itself "to the minimum ethics indispensable to maintaining society."^[12] It should be noted, however, that it did not grant people the right to be overtly homosexual; for included in the "minimum ethics indispensable to maintaining society" are laws against solicitation and any public behavior which is considered socially deviant or contrary to the folkways and customs of the time. Public homosexual behavior being one of them.^[12]

Dance of the forty-one

On the night of 20 November 1901, Mexico City police raided an affluent drag ball, arresting 42 men, half of them dressed as women, and dragging them off to Belón Prison.^[12] The resulting scandal, known as the Dance of the 41 Maricones, received massive press coverage and prompted a series of widely circulated prints by José Guadalupe Posada that depicted the dance.^[13] The cross-dressers were publicly humiliated, forced to sweep the streets under police guard, inducted into the 24th Battalion of the Mexican Army and sent to the southeastern state of Yucatán, where the Caste War was still being fought.^[13] Rumors that then-President Porfirio Díaz's nephew, Ignacio de la Torre, had attended the dance but was permitted to escape further added to the scandal's notoriety.^[13] Although the official account was that she was a "real woman."^[12] Historians, including well-known cultural commentator Carlos Monsiváis, argue that male homosexuality in the modern sense was "invented" in Mexico when the 1901 raid occurred.^[13] Since that time, the number 41 has come to symbolize male homosexuality in Mexican popular culture, figuring frequently in jokes and in casual teasing.^[13] Although the raid on the Dance of the 41 was followed by a less-publicized raid of a lesbian bar on 4 December 1901 in Santa Maria, the regime was soon worried by more serious threats such as the political and civil unrest that eventually led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910.^[12]

Society in the twentieth century

Despite the international depression of the 1930s and along with the social revolution overseen by President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-40)), the growth of Mexico City was accompanied by the opening of gay bars and gay bathhouses supplementing the traditional cruising locales of the Alameda, the Zócalo, Paseo de la Reforma, and Calle Madero (formerly Plateros).^[12] Those involved in homosexual activity continued to live with their families, and there were no homophobic publications. In the absence of a separate residential concentration, the lower classes tended to accept the stereotypes of the dominant society and enact them. While some of the cosmopolitan upper classes rejected the stereotypical effeminacy expected of maricones, they tended to emulate European dandies of the late nineteenth century.^[12]

During the Second World War, ten to fifteen gay bars operated in Mexico City, with dancing permitted in at least two, El África and El Triunfo. Relative freedom from official harassment continued until 1959 when Mayor Ernesto Uruchurtu closed every gay bar following a grisly triple murder. Motivated by moralistic pressure to "clean up vice," or at least to keep it invisible from the top, and by the lucrativeness of bribes from patrons threatened with arrests and from establishments seeking to operate in comparative safety, Mexico City's policemen had a reputation for zeal in persecution of homosexuals.^[12] By the late 1960s several Mexican cities had gay bars and, later, U.S.-style dance clubs. These places, however, were sometimes clandestine but tolerated by local authorities often meant that they were allowed to exist so long as the owners paid bribes. A fairly visible presence was developed in large cities such as Guadalajara, Acapulco, Veracruz and Mexico City.^[14]

LGBT movement

In the early 1970s, influenced by the U.S. gay liberation movement and the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre, some small political and cultural groups were formed, and initially strongly linked to the political left and, to some degree, to feminists organizing. One of the first LGBT groups in Latin America was the Homosexual Liberation Front (Frente de Liberación Homosexual), organized in 1971, in response to the firing of a Sears employee because of his supposedly homosexual behavior in Mexico City.^[15] The Homosexual Front of Revolutionary Action (Frente Homosexual de Acción Revolucionaria) protested the 1983 roundups in Guadalajara, Jalisco.^[16] The onset of AIDS in the mid-1980s created considerable debate and public discussion about homosexuality. Many voices, both supportive and oppositional, such as the Roman Catholic Church, participated in public discussions that increased awareness and understanding of homosexuality. LGBT groups were instrumental in initiating programs to combat AIDS, a shift in focus that curtailed, at least temporarily, emphasis on gay organizing.^[15]

In 1991, Mexico hosted a meeting of the International Gay and Lesbian Association (ILGA), the first it had met outside of Europe.^[15] In 1997, LGBT activists were active in constructing the political platform that resulted in Patria Jiménez, a lesbian activist in Mexico City, being selected for a proportional representation in the Chamber of Deputies representing the center-left Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).^[15] And LGBT rights advocate David Sánchez Camacho was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Federal District (ALDF).^[17] In August 1999, the First Meeting of Lesbians and Lesbian Feminists was held in Mexico City. From this meeting evolved an organized effort for expanded LGBT rights in the country's capital.^[18] The following month, the PRD-controlled Legislative Assembly passed an ordinance banning discrimination based on sexual orientation, the first of its kind in Mexico at the time.^[19]

Visible and well-attended LGBT marches and pride parades have occurred in Mexico City since 1979 and in Guadalajara since 1996, the country's largest cities.^[15] In 2001, Article 1 from the Federal Constitution was amended to prohibit discrimination based, among other factors, on sexual orientation under the vague term preferences. Two year later, a federal law anti-discrimination was passed, which created a national council to enforce it, and went into effect on 11 June.^[20] The same year, Amaranta Gómez ran as the first transgender congresswoman candidate under the affiliation of the defunct Mexico Posible.^[21] In 2006, Mexico City legalized same-sex civil unions. The second Latin American jurisdiction to do so after Buenos Aires, Argentina legalized them in 2002. The law allows same-sex couples to gain access to inheritance and pension rights.^[22] The following year, the northern state of Coahuila legalized same-sex civil unions.^[23] In 2008, the PRD-controlled Legislative Assembly approved a law that allows transgender people to change their legal gender and name in Mexico City.^[24] In December 2009, Mexico City's Legislative Assembly passed a bill that would legalize same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples in the jurisdiction, which will become effective in March 2010.^[25]

LGBT people in Mexico have organized in a variety of ways, through local organizations, marches, and the development of a Commission to Denounce Hate Crimes. Mexico has a thriving LGBT movement with organizations in various large cities throughout the country and numerous LGBT publications. More prominently in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana and Puebla. The vast majority of them at the local level, with national efforts often coming apart before they begin.^[26]

Societal prejudices and terminologies

Anthropologist Joseph M. Carrier suggests that, unlike the U.S., in Mexico a man's masculine gender and heterosexual identity are not threatened by a homosexual act as long as he plays the inserter's role. Only the male who plays the passive sexual role and exhibits feminine gender characteristics is considered to be truly homosexual and is, therefore, stigmatized.^[27]

The terms used to refer to homosexual Mexican men are generally coded with gendered meaning drawn from the inferior position of women in patriarchal Mexican society. The most benign of the contemptuous terms is maricón, a label that highlights the non-conforming gender attributes of the (feminine) homosexual man, equivalent to sissy or fairy in American English.^[27] Terms such as joto or puto, on the other hand, speak to the passive sexual role taken by these men rather than merely their gender attributes, according to Carrier.^[27] They are more derogatory and vulgar in that they underscore the sexually non-conforming nature of their passive/receptive position in the homosexual act. The invective associated with all these appellations speaks to the way effeminate homosexual men are viewed as having betrayed the Mexican man's prescribed gender and sexual role.^[27] There are also some regional variants such as leandro, lilo, mariposón, puñal, among others.^[28]

Carrier also suggests that homosexuality is rigidly circumscribed by the prominent role the family plays in structuring homosexual activity. In Mexico, the traditional family remains a crucial institution that defines both gender and sexual relations between men and women.^[27] The concealment, suppression or prevention of any open acknowledgment of homosexual activity underscores the stringency of cultural dictates surrounding gender and sexual norms between Mexican family life.^[27] Overall, however, men and women who self-identify as homosexuals in urban areas have created social networks and found public spaces for socialization without much social interference. Because of Mexican expectations that sexual differences be dealt with "sexual silence" and fear of discrimination in the family, school and workplace, it is commons for gay men and lesbians to be cautious in disclosing their sexual orientation. Leading "double lives" is often seen as necessary to ensure that one's connections with non-homosexual world remain intact.^[29]

Machismo

According to Andrew A. Reding, homosexuals remain for the most part invisible, for two reasons.The first, which helps explain why there are no residential gay districts in Mexico, is that Mexicans tend to reside with their families far longer than their counterparts in the U.S.^[30] This is in part for economic reasons. Low incomes and scarce housing keep many living with their parents. So does the fact that in the absence of a government social welfare system, the family is the primary bulwark of social security. Even wealthy Mexican homosexuals often continue to live at home, acquiring a separate lodging as a meeting place for their sexual partners.^[30]

The second major reason gay men and lesbians remain invisible is the strong social stigma attached to homosexuality, particularly where it comes into conflict with the highly-accentuated and differentiated sex roles prescribed by machismo.

"The Mexican mestizo culture places a high value on "manliness." A salient feature of the society is a sharp delimitation between the gender roles roles played by males and females. In general, men are expected to be dominant and independent and females to be submissive and dependent. The distinct boundary between male and female roles in Mexico appears to be due in part to a culturally defined hypermasculine ideal referred to as machismo."

– Joseph M. Carrier.^[31]

But machismo is as much about power relationships among men as it is about establishing the dominance of men over women.

"It is not exclusively or primarily a means of structuring power relations between men and women. It is a means of structuring power among men. Like drinking, gambling, risk taking, asserting one's opinions, and fighting, the conquest of women is a feat performed with two audiences in mind: first, other men, to whom one must constantly prove one's masculinity and virility; and second, oneself, to whom one must also show all signs of masculinity. Machismo, then, is a matter of constantly asserting one's masculinity by way of practices that show the self to be "active," not "passive"... yesterday's victories count for little tomorrow."

– Roger Lancaster.^[31]

Machismo has important implications for how most Mexicans view homosexuality. Homophobia is far more intensely directed against those who violate norms of male and female conduct. That is especially pronounced among men, where effeminate behavior elicits far greater levels of social disapproval than does homosexuality per se.^[31] In the machista perspective, a man's greatest offense against the norm is to not act like a man. Effeminacy and cross-dressing are serious violations of the masculine ideal. But the greatest transgression is for a man to assume the sexual role of a woman in intercourse. The man who penetrates another man remains masculine. The man who is penetrated loses his masculinity, and incurs by far the greater social stigma.^[32] The focus on masculinity has serious consequences. It means that most Mexican gay or bisexual males, regardless of the sexual roles they assume in private, are at pains to project a manly image in public. The relative few who are unable to do so are therefore highly exposed and subject to ridicule and harassment, to say nothing of discrimination in employment.^[32]

Because the vast majority of the homosexual population remains hidden from view, homosexuality becomes identified in the minds of many with prostitution, disease, and cross-dressing. That reinforces a vicious cycle, as prejudice keeps homosexuality underground, and the few surface manifestations of homosexuality reinforce prejudice.^[33] It also means that transvestites are subject to hatred, harassment, and police abuse. Police abuse stems not only from popular prejudice, but from the fact that prostitution is illegal. Mexican police, whose wages tend to be very low, are notorious for corruption, they extort out of citizens.^[33] The notion of transgender, understood in terms that go beyond the demeanor-based identities of transvestites (vestidas or travestis), is of recent arrival in Mexico.^[29]

In the gender-based classificatory system in Mexico, masculine women typically have been assumed to reject men, or to want to be like them. This notion is captured in derogatory labels such as machorra and marimacha.^[28] Other derogatory terms such as chancla or chanclera and tortillera denote perception that "real" sex cannot happen in the absence of a penis.^[29] Because machismo is by definition male-oriented, and is premised on male dominance in relations between the sexes, lesbian relationships are generally perceived as far less threatening to society. That is, to the extent that they are perceived at all, because to a great degree they remain invisible in a cultural context that gives little recognition to female sexuality in the first place.^[34]

"One of the cultural factors that has had the greatest impact in making lesbians invisible is the notion that we women do not have our own sexuality [...] people continue to think there's no such thing as lesbian women, they don't understand what happens sexually between lesbian women [...] that has made the culture much more permissive towards female partnerships. It would be difficult for two men to live together by themselves without giving rise to rumors; but for two women to accompany each other how beautiful it is that the poor things have found company to avoid loneliness!"

– Claudia Hinojosa.^[34]

That helps explain the view often expressed among Mexican men that lesbians are just women who have not experienced "real" sex with a "real" man. In that sense, lesbians suffer much the same treatment as other women in a society that so exalts the masculine over the feminine.^[7]

Roman Catholic Church

Reinforcing attitudes toward homosexuality in Mexican culture is the stance of the Roman Catholic Church. Mexico City's Cardinal Norberto Rivera denounces "euphemisms" that contribute to "moral disorientation". "The arguments expressed by those who sympathize with this current that favors sexual libertinism, often appear under humanist banners, although at root they manifest materialist ideologies that deny the transcendent nature of the human person, as well as the supernatural vocation of the individual." The complementary union of man and woman, he says, is the only relationship capable of generating "true conjugal love."^[35] Anti-gay rhetoric is still acceptable in parts of the country where the influence of the Catholic Church is strongest.^[26]

The new Catholic Catechism describes homosexual acts as a "grave depravity" and "intrinsically disordered." It states that lesbian and gay relationships are "contrary to natural law [...] they do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity. Under no circumstances can they be approved." Recognizing that "the number of men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies is not negligible," it specifies that "they must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity," avoiding "every sign of unjust discrimination." Yet it mandates that "homosexual persons are called to chastity."^[35]

Tolerance among indigenous peoples

Even though Mexico's majority mestizo, racially mixed and assimilated, culture, permeated by machismo, is hostile to male homosexuality, particularly in its more effeminate manifestations, some of its indigenous cultures are a lot more tolerant. Isthmus Zapotecs and Yucatán Mayans are cases in point.^[7] Particularly, the Zapotecs developed the concept of a third gender, which they referred to as muxe, as an intermediate between male and female.

"Muxe, persons who appear to be predominantly male but display certain feminine characteristics are highly visible in Isthmus Zapotec populations. They fill a third gender role between men and women, taking some of the characteristics of both. Although they are perceived to be different from the general heterosexual male population, they are neither devalued nor discriminated against in their communities. Isthmus Zapotecs have been dominated by Roman Catholic ideology for more than four centuries. Mestizos, especially mestizo police, occasionally harass and even persecute muxe boys, but Zapotec parents, especially mothers and other women, are quick to defend them and their rights to "be themselves," because, as they put it, "God made them that way." I have never heard an Isthmus Zapotec suggest that a muxe chose to become a muxe. The idea of choosing gender or of choosing sexual orientation, the two of which are not distinguished by the Isthmus Zapotecs, is as ludicrous as suggesting, that one can choose one's skin color."

– Beverly Chiñas.^[3]

Somewhat androgynous, they do both women's and men's work, but unlike most males they develop especially close friendships with women. While their apparel can be somewhat flamboyant, they are more masculine than feminine in dress.^[36] A muxe status is recognized in childhood, and as Zapotec parents consider the muxes to be the most brightest, most gifted children, they will keep them in school longer than other children.^[36] It is widely believed that they are artistically gifted, and do better work than women.^[37] Also, the muxe takes the passive role in sex with masculine males who will sometimes take a muxe as an spouse.^[36]

More recently, muxes have been able to use their relatively high levels of education to gain important footholds in the more prestigious white-collar jobs in government and business that constitute the social elite in their communities. They have also been getting elected to political office. Benefiting from the public perception that they are intelligent and gifted.^[36]

According to Chiñas, "Isthmus Zapotec culture allows both women and men more freedom to express affection in public for persons of the same sex than does Anglo North American culture." In the special case of fiestas, however, heterosexual men are expected to not engage in any bodily contact with either men or women while dancing. Women, on the other hand, are allowed to dance with each other, and muxes may dance with each other or with women.^[38] Though not necessarily approving such liaisons, Isthmus Zapotec society is tolerant of persons who publicly form same-sex couples, whether male or female. Both types of couples occur with comparable frequency. Zapotecs are also tolerant of bisexuality and transvestism. Chiñas affirms that she seldom witnessed any instances of ostracism based on sexual orientation or same-sex liaisons.^[38]

In his field work in the Yucatán Peninsula, Walter Williams found the Maya people to be very accepting of homosexual behavior between young men and teenagers. Historically, homosexual bonds were considered normal among young men, a pattern which continues to this day.

"After my arrival in Yucatán, I soon learned that the society provides a de facto acceptance of same-sex relations for males. It did not take long to establish contacts, and my informants suggested that a large majority of the male population is at certain times sexually active with other males. This usually occurs in the years between thirteen and thirty, when sexual desire is strongest, but it also involves men older than that. Marriage to a woman does not seem to have much effect on the occurrence and amount of homosexual behavior."

– Walter Williams.^[39]

Carter Wilson, who observed the homosexual scene in the Yucatán over a far greater period of time, and has studied it into the 1990s, corroborates many of Walter Williams' findings. Wilson asked Reinaldo Burgos, a man in his fifties who works at a local bank, how the people of Mérida, the state's capital, felt about gays.

"Oh, basically they accept them. The age for boys is the time before they get married, from about fifteen until they're twenty-four. They have their girlfriends, but the families are very careful about their girls, about protecting their virginity, so the boys also have a special friend, another boy they have sex with. Sometimes they give up the special friend when they get married and sometimes they don't. These are the ones who become bisexuals later on. To decide who's going to be the penetrator, they change off. It doesn't matter. They do it to each other, and when they get up from the bed one doesn't feel any less masculine than the other."

– Reinaldo Burgos, a local Maya.^[39]

The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), a mostly indigenous and armed revolutionary group, on 1 January 1994, the same day the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect, began a rebellion against the Mexican government in the southern state of Chiapas, the country's poorest. They have included in several proclamations to the nation "the homosexuals" as an oppressed group along with indigenous peoples, women and peasants.^[40]

"In the complex equation that turns death into money, there is a group of humans who command a very low price in the global slaughterhouse. We are the indigenous, the young, the women, the children, the elderly, the homosexuals, the migrants, all those who are different. That is to say, the immense majority of humanity."

– Subcomandante Marcos.^[41]

Anti-discrimination laws

In 29 April 2003, the Federal Congress unanimously passed the "Federal Law to Prevent and Eliminate Discrimination" that includes sexual preferences as a protected category. The law, which went into effect on 11 June 2003, creates the National Council to Prevent Discrimination (CONAPRED), a body created to enforce it.^[42] Mexico became the second country in Latin America, after Ecuador to provide anti-discrimination protection for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.^[42] Article 4 of the law defines discrimination as:

"Every distinction, exclusion or restriction based on ethnic or national origin, sex, age, disability, social or economic status, health, pregnancy, language, religion, opinion, sexual preferences, civil status or any other, that impedes recognition or enjoyment or fights and real equality in terms of opportunities for people."

– Article 4 of the "Federal Law to Prevent and Eliminate Discrimination".^[42]

Article 9 defines as "discriminatory behavior", among others:

"Impeding access to public or private education; prohibiting free choice of employment, restricting access, permanency or promotion in employment; denying or restricting information on reproductive rights; denying medical services; impeding participation in civil, political or any other kind of organizations; impeding the exercise of property rights; offending, ridiculing or promoting violence through messages and images displayed in communications media; impeding access to social security and its benefits; impeding access to any public service or private institution providing services to the public; limiting freedom of movement; exploiting or treating in an abusive or degrading way; restricting participation in sports, recreation or cultural activities; incitement to hatred, violence, rejection, ridicule, defamation, slander, persecution or exclusion; promoting or indulging in physical or psychological abuse based on physical appearance or dress, talk, mannerisms or for openly acknowledging one's sexual preferences."

– Article 9 of the "Federal Law to Prevent and Eliminate Discrimination".^[42]

CONAPRED is an organ of state created by the "Federal Law to Prevent and Eliminate Discrimination," adopted on 29 April 2003, and published in the Official Gazette of the Federation on 11 June of the same year. The Council is the leading institution for promoting policies and measures to contribute to cultural development and social progress in ensuring social inclusion and the right to equality, which is the first of fundamental rights in the Federal Constitution.^[20] CONAPRED is also responsible for receiving and resolving grievances and complaints of alleged discriminatory acts committed by private individuals or federal authorities in carrying out their duties. Also, the CONAPRED develops actions to protect all the citizens of any distinction or exclusion based on any aspect mentioned on Article 4 of the Federal Law.^[20] The Council has legal personality and own property, and is sectorial to the Interior Ministry. Moreover, autonomy technical and management's decisions in full independence, and is not subject to any authority for its resolutions on the procedures for claims or complaints.^[20]

Violence

Homosexuality is not illegal in Mexico but LGBT people have been prosecuted through the use of legal codes that regulate obscene or lurid behavior (atentados à la moral y las buenas costumbres). Over the past two decades, there have been reports of violence against homosexual men, including the murders of openly gay men in Mexico City and of transvestites in southern state of Chiapas. Local activists note that often these cases remain unsolved, blaming the police for lack of interest in investigating them and for assuming that homosexuals are responsible for the attacks against them.^[15]

In mid-2007, Emilio Alvarez Icaza Longoria, then-chairman of the Human Rights Commission of Mexico City, said he was deeply concerned that Mexico City has the worst record for hate crime because of homophobia, with 137 crimes between 1995 and 2005.^[43] Likewise, the journalist and author of the book, "Homophobia. Hate, Crime and Justice, 1995-2005", Fernando del Collado affirmed that during the decade covered in the edition 387 hate crimes due to homophobia were committed in Mexico, 98% of which has gone unpunished up until now.^[43] The author expressed his concern that there is a high level of impunity and indicated that to take the testimony of one of the institutions, that of the Citizens Commission Against Hate Crime because of Homophobia (CCCOH) which has reported three homosexuals are murdered per month in Mexico.^[43] Del Collado indicated that between 1995 and 2005, 126 homosexuals were violently murdered in Mexico City, those of which 75% were reclaimed by their families; in 10% of the cases families identified the victim but did not reclaim their bodies, which ended up in common graves; and the remaining 5% were never identified.^[43]

Ex-assistant attorney for attention of crime victims of the Federal District Attorney General's Office (PGJDF), Barbara Illan Rondero, strongly criticized the lack of sensitivity and professionalism on the part of the investigators of the crimes committed against homosexuals and lesbians.^[43]

“

I still can't determine if this is due to negligence, lack of preparation or down-right covering up, and is a matter that has to do with the intention of not solving these crimes because they carry no weight of importance

”

Alejandro Brito Lemus, director of the news supplement "Letra S" (Letter S), claimed that only 4% of gays and lesbians that suffer from discrimination present their complaints to the corresponding authorities.^[43]

“

In spite of the gravity of the aggressions suffered, the majority of gays, lesbians and transsexuals prefer to keep silent about what happens and to remain isolated in fear of being attacked again in revealing their sexual orientation.

”

LGBT influence on politics

LGBT participation is discreetly seen in the long-governing Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Ever since the triumph of the Liberals under President Benito Juárez in the 1860s and the 1910 Revolution, there has been a strong separation of church and state in Mexico. With morality generally considered the province of the Church, the PRI, which considers itself the party of the Revolution, has generally been reluctant to be seen as carrying out the will of the Catholic Church. Yet it has also been mindful of not offending Catholic moral sensibilities.^[44] In 1998, then-President Ernesto Zedillo (PRI) appointed Pedro Joaquín-Coldwell, an openly bisexual politician and former governor of Quintana Roo, ambassador to Cuba.^[45] Nonetheless, most individual office holders tend to view LGBT issues as a private matter to be ignored or a moral problem to be opposed. The PRI has allied with the PAN to block any legislation concerning LGBT rights in some states, except for two cases. The party unanimously voted in favor of the recognition of same-sex civil unions in Mexico City and Coahuila.^[46][47] The events generated some internal debate within the PRI about whether or not the party should have platform plank on the matter.

The National Action Party (PAN), a center-right party, tends to endorse Roman Catholic Church teachings and oppose LGBT issues on moral grounds. Some PAN mayors have adopted ordinances or policies that have led to the closing of gay bars, or detention of transvestites, usually on charges of prostitution.^[44] Many of its leaders have taken public stands variously describing homosexuality as "abnormal", as a "sickness", or as a "moral weakness."^[44] In the 2000 presidential elections, then-PAN candidate and eventual winner Vicente Fox used homosexual stereotypes as a way to demean and humiliate his principal opponent, Francisco Labastida, by accusing him of being a sissy and a mama's boy, and nicknamed him Lavestida (literally the cross-dressed).^[48] When Mexico City and Coahuila legalized same-sex civil unions, the main opposition came from the PAN, former President Vicente Fox and current-President Felipe Calderón. Since then, the party has opposed to similar bills under the argument of protecting traditional family values.^[49] Nonetheless, PAN officials have insisted that homosexuals have rights as human beings, and should in no case be subjected to hatred or physical violence.^[44]

Participation by sexual minorities is widely accepted in the center-left Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), one of Mexico's three major political parties. Since its creation in the late 1980s, the PRD has supported LGBT rights and has a specific party program committed to ending discrimination on the basis of sexual diversity.^[50] In the 1997 parliamentary elections, Patria Jiménez became the first openly lesbian member of the Federal Congress, and LGBT rights advocate David Sánchez Camacho was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Federal District (ALDF).^[17] Two years later, the PRD-controlled Legislative Assembly passed an ordinance banning discrimination based on sexual orientation, the first of its kind in the country at the time.^[19] In 2008, a PRD-backed bill concerning gender identity was passed, which allows transgender people to change their gender and sex on official documents.^[24] In the 2009 parliamentary elections, out of the 38 LGBT candidatures presented by several political parties, only Enoé Uranga succeeded,^[51] an openly lesbian politician who in 2000 promoted the legalization of same-sex civil unions in Mexico City.^[52] The bill successfully passed six years later in the PRD-controlled Legislative Assembly, allowing same-sex couples to gain access to inheritance and pension rights.^[22] Similar bills have been proposed by the PRD in at least six states.^[53] In December 2009, Mexico City's PRD-controlled Legislative Assembly passed a bill that would legalize same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples in the jurisdiction. Eight days later after congressional approval, Head of Government ("Mayor") Marcelo Ebrard signed the same-sex marriage bill into law, which will go into effect in 45 working days, beginning in March 2010.^[25] Other leftist but minor parties are Convergence and the Labor Party (PT). Both have continuously supported the LGBT community and PRD-proposed bills regarding LGBT rights.^[54]

The extinct Social Democratic Party (PSD), a minor progressive political party, was prominently noted by its wide support for the LGBT community. In the 2006 presidential elections, Patricia Mercado, the first woman presidential candidate, was the only one who openly supported same-sex marriage.^[55] In the 2009 parliamentary elections, nominated 32 LGBT candidates, out of a total of 38 presented by other parties, for seats in the Federal Congress.^[51] Meanwhile, in the municipality of Guadalajara, the second-largest city of Mexico, Miguel Galán became the first openly gay politician to run for a mayorship in the country.^[52] During campaign, Galán was a target of homophobic comments, notably by Green Party rival Gamaliel Ramirez, who on a radio show cracked crude jokes about homosexuals and referred to the PSD as "a dirty party of degenerates". Ramirez also called homosexual practices "abnormal" that should be outlawed. The following days Ramirez issued a written apology after his party condemned his comments.^[56] Despite losing the mayorship, Galán received a total of 7,122 votes, the most for any openly gay politician in Mexico.^[51]

Civil unions and same-sex marriage

The United Mexican States is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city, also known as Mexico City. Even though a Federal Civil Code exists, each state has its own which is usually exactly the same as the Civil Code for the Federal District, and regulates, among other factors, concubinage and marriage. Same-sex civil unions and same-sex marriages are not recognized at the federal level. However, in recent years some states have been considering legislating in the matter.

Mexico City

Being the seat of the Powers of the Union, Mexico City did not belong to any particular state but to all. After years of demanding greater political autonomy, residents were given the right to directly elect the Head of Government of the Federal District and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly (ALDF) by popular vote in 1997. Ever since, the center-left Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) has controlled both political powers.

In 2000, Enoé Uranga, an openly lesbian politician and activist, proposed a bill that would have legalized same-sex civil unions in Mexico City under the name Ley de Sociedades de Convivencia (LSC, Law for Coexistence Partnerships).^[52] The bill recognized inheritance and pension rights of two adults, regardless of sexual orientation. Following widespread opposition from right-wing groups and then-mayor Andres Manuel López Obrador's ambiguity concerning the bill, the Legislative Assembly decided not to take it up.^[47] As new leftist Mayor Marcelo Ebrard was expected to take power in December 2006, the Legislative Assembly voted to approve (43-17) the LSC, fully backed by the four leftist parties (PRD, PT, Convergence and PSD) and the PRI, and opposed by the PAN.^[47] The law was well-received by feminist and LGBT groups, including Emilio Álvarez Icaza, then-chairman of the Human Rights Commission of Mexico City. And it was strongly opposed by right-wing groups such as the National Parent Union and the Roman Catholic Church.^[47] The law officially took effect on 16 March 2007.

On 24 November 2009, PRD assemblyman David Razú proposed a bill that would legalize same-sex marriage in Mexico City.^[57] The bill was backed by the Human Rights Commission of Mexico City, and over 600 non-governmental organizations, including the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA), International Amnesty (AI) and the AIDS Healthcare Foundation.^[58][59] The PAN announced it will either go to the courts to appeal the law or demand a referendum.^[60][61] However, a referendum on same-sex marriage was rejected by the Legislative Assembly in a 36-22 vote on 18 December 2009.^[62] On 21 December 2009, the Legislative Assembly passed (39-20) the bill. Eight days later, Head of Government ("Mayor") Marcelo Ebrard signed the same-sex marriage bill into law, which will go into effect in 45 working days, beginning in March 2010.^[25] The law changes the definition of marriage in the city's Civil Code from "a free union between a man and a woman" to "a free union between two people."^[63] The law would grant same-sex couples the same rights as opposite-sex couples, including adopting children.^[64] The PAN has vowed to challenge the law in the courts.^[64]

Coahuila

On 11 January 2007, in a 20-13 vote the Congress of the northern state of Coahuila legalized same-sex civil unions under the name Pacto Civil de Solidaridad (Civil Pact of Solidarity, PCS), which gives property and inheritance rights to same-sex couples.^[46] The PCS was proposed by congresswoman Julieta López of the centrist PRI, whose 19 members voted for the law.^[46][65] Luis Alberto Mendoza, deputy of the center-right PAN, which opposed, said the new law was an "attack against the family, which is society's natural group and is formed by a man and a woman".^[46] Other than that, the PCS drew little opposition. It was notably supported by Bishop Raúl Vera.^[65] Unlike Mexico City's law, once same-sex couples have registered in Coahuila, the state protects their rights no matter where they live in the country.^[65] Twenty days after the law passed, the country's first same-sex civil union took place in Saltillo, Coahuila.^[65]

Other states

Similar bills have been proposed by the PRD in at least six states.^[53] On 7 December 2006, a similar bill to that of Mexico City was proposed in Puebla. But it faced strong opposition and criticism from deputies of the PRI and PAN, who declared that "the traditional family is the only social model, and there cannot be another one."^[66] In July 2009, the PRD introduced a formal initiative to legalize civil unions in the western state of Colima.^[67] Nevertheless, the following month, the local legislature decided not to take up the initiative, following widespread opposition from right-wing groups.^[68] On 13 November 2006, in neighboring state of Michoacán, it was announced that a similar bill would be formally proposed. However, as of August 2009, it has been stalled, meaning it has not been discussed by the local congress.^[69] Other states include Jalisco, Guerrero and Tabasco.^[53] After Mexico City's Legislative Assembly legalized same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples in December 2009, debate resurged in states where civil unions had been previously proposed. In the western state of Michoacán, the PRD has announced it will propose both bills in 2010.^[70] In neighboring Colima, PRI governor Mario Anguiano Moreno has agreed to discuss the legalization of civil unions and adoption by same-sex couples.^[71]

LGBT social life

According to the First National Poll on Discrimination (2005) in Mexico which was carried out by the CONAPRED, 48% of the Mexican people interviewed indicated that they would not permit a homosexual to live in their house.^[43] 95% of the homosexuals interviewed indicated that in Mexico there is discrimination against them; four out of ten declared they were victim of acts of exclusion; more than half said they felt rejected; and six out of ten felt their worst enemy was society.^[43]

Although overall public displays of homosexual affection or cross-dressing are still taboo in most parts of Mexico, LGBT social life tends to thrive in the country's largest cities and resorts. The visible center of the LGBT community is the Zona Rosa, in Mexico City, where over 50 gay bars and dance clubs exist.^[72] Surrounding the country's capital, there is a sizable amount in the State of Mexico.^[73] Some observers claim that gay life is more developed in Mexico's second largest city, Guadalajara.^[16] Other large cities include border city Tijuana,^[74] northern city Monterrey,^[75] centrist cities Puebla^[76] and León,^[77] and major port city Veracruz.^[78] The popularity of gay tourism especially in Puerto Vallarta, Cancún and elsewhere has also brought more national attention to the presence of homosexuality in Mexico.^[79] Among some young, urban heterosexuals, it has become popular to attend gay dance clubs and to have openly gay friends.^[79]

In 1979, the country's first LGBT Pride Parade, also known as LGBT Pride March, was held and attended by over one thousand people in Mexico City.^[80] Ever since, it has been held every June without interruption under different slogans with the aims of bringing visibility to sexual minorities, fomenting consciousness about AIDS and HIV, denouncing homophobia and demanding the creation of public policies such as the recognition of same-sex civil unions and same-sex marriages and the legalization of LGBT adoption, among others.^[81] According to organizers, in its latest edition, the XXXI LGBT Pride Parade was attended by over 350,000 people, 100,000 more than its predecessor.^[82] In 2003, the first Lesbian Pride March occurred in the country's capital.^[83] In Guadalajara, well-attended LGBT Pride Parades have been held also every June since 1996.^[84] LGBT Pride Parades have continuously occurred in Monterrey,^[85] Tijuana,^[86] Puebla,^[87] Veracruz,^[85] Xalapa,^[88] Cuernavaca,^[89] Tuxtla Gutiérrez,^[90] Acapulco,^[91] Chilpancingo,^[85] and Mérida.^[84]

Mexican gay soccer team, known as El Tri Gay, is the first of its kind in the country. Team member, Eduardo Velázquez, was quoted saying:^[92]

“

Maybe we are not the best, maybe we are, no one knows. But we are the first to go and the first who dare to form a team with courage, heart, strength and enthusiasm and we are determined to represent Mexico diligently. We hope to abolish the belief that the Mexican gay community is always found in nightclubs, drinking, looking for sex and consuming drugs.

”

In 2007, Mexico participated for the first time in the Gay World Cup, which was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina. However, according to team members, they have been discriminated against by Mexican official soccer organizations such as the Mexican Football Federation (FMF) and the National Commission for Physical Culture and Sports (CONADE), that have refused to support them because the Gay World Cup is not recognized by the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA).^[92] The team also participated in the 2008 Gay World Cup held in London, UK and in the 2009 World Outgames held in Copenhagen, Denmark.^[93] The team fully participated in AIDS Healthcare Foundation (AHF) "LOVE Condoms Campaign", all getting publicly tested.^[94]

LGBT Tourism

Guadalajara and Acapulco were common vacation destinations for gay men and lesbians from Mexico City and, especially, the United States and Canada in the 1980s and 1990s. However, since that time, Puerto Vallarta has developed into Mexico's premier resort town as a sort of satellite gay space for its big sister Guadalajara, much as Fire Island is to New York City and Palm Springs is to Los Angeles.^[95] It is now considered the most welcoming and gay-friendly destination in the country, dubbed the "San Francisco of Mexico."^[96] It boasts a gay scene, centered in the Zona Romántica, of hotels and resorts as well as many bars, nightclubs and a gay beach on the main shore.^[96] Puerto Vallarta has been cited as the number one gay beach destination in Latin America.^[97]

LGBT cultural life

In Mexican culture, it is now relatively common to include gay characters on Mexican sitcoms and soap operas (telenovelas), and to discuss homosexuality in talk shows. But representations of male homosexuals vary widely. Often include stereotypical versions of male effeminacy meant to provide comic relief as well as representations meant to increase social awareness and to generate greater acceptance of homosexuality. However, efforts to represent lesbians remain almost non-existent, which might be related to the more general invisibility of lesbian lifestyles in Mexico.^[98] The prominence of such openly gay luminaries as singer-songwriter Juan Gabriel, artist Juan Soriano and essayist Carlos Monsivais, until recently gay life was safely closeted and officially unmentionable in the mass media.^[99] A Lesbian-Gay Cultural Week has been held annually since 1982 in Mexico City, and with the support of a cultural museum belonging to the prestigious National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) since 1987.^[100]

Cinema

Exaggeratedly effeminate men representations date as far back as 1938 in the Mexican film "La Casa del Ogro" (The Ogre's House) and continued to appear solely for comedic relief.^[99] The first sympathetic portrayal of a gay character awaited "El Lugar Sin Límites" (The Place Without Limits), a 1978 drama directed by Arturo Ripstein. Played by Roberto Cobo, the character of La Manuela emerges as a tragic figure who is at once desired and victimized by the typically macho characters in a Mexican village.^[99] A few years later, "Doña Herlinda y Su Hijo" (Doña Herlinda and Her Son, 1984) featured the first same-sex couple in Mexican cinema, who struggled with family pressures to survive.^[99] By the 1990s and early 2000s, "El Callejón de los Milagros" (The Alley of Miracles, 1994) and "Y Tu Mamá También" (And Your Mother Too, 2001) dealt with gay issues and were internationally successful. 2004 film Temporada de Patos (Duck Season) featured a teenager boy who discovers his homosexuality.^[99] Jaime Humberto Hermosillo, an openly gay film director, is known for his contributions to Mexican cinema. Hermosillo directed critically-acclaimed films Mil Nubes de Paz Cercan el Cielo (A Thousand Clouds of Peace, 2003) and El Cielo Dividido (Broken Sky, 2006) allow viewers to observe relationships through the lens of gay desire.^[99] In early 2006, Mexico's first-ever International Gay Film Festival took place in Mexico City and was attended by more than 5,000 movie-goers. According to its director, Alberto Legorreta, the event was born of a desire "to create spaces for dialogue, contemplation, and artistic criticism of gay subject matter in Mexico."^[101]

Television

Two private channels compete in providing national coverage, Televisa and TV Azteca. Matters of sexuality are presented occasionally, mainly on talk shows and journalistic programs. Mexican networks have a strong self-censoring attitude, and therefore homosexuality is usually not dealt with unless the program deals with HIV/AIDS.^[102] Notwithstanding, in recent years it is now relatively common to include gay characters on Mexican sitcoms and soap operas. A lesbian character was the first to be included in a popular 1990s soap opera, Nada Personal (Nothing Personal). In this TV Azteca-produced program, the positive image of homosexuality goes along with a major criticism of the Mexican political system.^[103] In 1999, another TV Azteca production, La Vida en el Espejo, showed José María Yazpik playing a gay character, which was recognized by many critics as the first gay character portrayed with dignity in a Mexican soap opera.^[104] The same network produced similar gay characters played by actress Margarita Gralia in Mirada de Mujer (1997), actor Juan Pablo Medina in Cuando Seas Mía (2001) and actor Juan Manuel Bernal in La Heredera (2004).^[104] In mid-2009, Televisa-produced soap opera Sortilegio softly dealt with bisexuality.^[105] A couple months later, Los Exitosos Pérez, an adaptation of Argentine comedy-drama soap opera Los Exitosos Pells, was launched in Mexico. The TV show revolves around whether homosexuals should come out of the closet or not.^[105] Actor and protagonist Jaime Camil criticized Mexican television for censoring his kissing scenes with male co-star José Ron.^[106]

Cable television shows tend to be more open when dealing with LGBT issues. Aside from American TV shows such as sitcom Will & Grace, drama series The L Word, drama series Six Feet Under, reality Queer Eye for the Straight Guy, several MTV productions, among others. Televisa-affiliated music videos network Telehit has continuously produced TV shows targeting the LGBT community since the early 2000s. Desde Gayola, broadcast from 2001 to 2006, was a Mexican sketch comedy TV series which criticized the reality on the Mexican society, dealing with diverse topics such as politics, religion, sexuality, show business, among others. Produced by Horacio Villalobos, Desde Gayola featured many LGBT characters including Manigüis, a stereotypical gay male living in the city; Supermana, a transgender superheroine, played by transgender actress Daniel Vives, that deals with women's problems; La Tesorito, played by transgender actress Alejandra Bogue, a parody of TV-host and actress Laura León; and Marta Según, played by actor Javier Yepez, a spoof of former First Lady of Mexico Marta Sahagún.^[107] Another prominent Telehit-produced TV show is Guau!, currently hosted by Alex Kaffie, Lorena Fernández and Sergio Téllez. Launched in late 2005, "Guau!" is often considered the only fully gay, Mexican TV show.^[108]

Arts and literature

The field of literature in Mexico has been particularly propitious to the dissemination of the themes of homosexuality and to the inscriptions of gay and lesbian sensibilities in aesthetic terms.^[109] "El Diario de José Toledo" (José Toledo's Diary, 1964), written by Miguel Barbachano Ponce, earned recognition as the first novel in Mexico to openly inscribe homosexuality in literature.^[110] Rosamaría Roffiel, an openly lesbian self-taught journalist and writer, wrote the book "Amora" (1989), which is credited with being the first lesbian novel published in Mexico -that is, the first novel which openly discusses lesbianism and places it in the foreground.^[111]

Despite societal prejudices, some LGBT people were able to live fairly open lives and still become successful, especially in the fields of literature and arts. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648-1695), considered the greatest lyric poet of the colonial period (1521-1821), was a Mexican nun presumed by many to be a lesbian because of the passionate love poems she addressed to her benefactress -Leonor Carreto, wife of Viceroy Antonio Sebastián de Toledo- and her scathing critique of male abuse of power against women.^[112] Salvador Novo (1904-1974) was a poet and member of the avant-garde group Los Contemporáneos, who wrote "Nuevo Amor" (New Love, 1933), considered as one of the best collections of poetry ever written in Spanish.^[113] His close friend Xavier Villaurrutia (1903-1950), another prominent member of Los Contemporáneos, was a poet and playwright, considered as one of Mexico's finest modern writers and major film and art critics. His "Nocturno de los Ángeles" (Nocturne of the Angels, 1936) is one of the monuments of gay writing in Latin America.^[114] Luis Zapata (b. 1951) has become Mexico's most celebrated gay writer over the past decades, whose first two works helped usher in the 1980s boom of gay literature in Mexico. His literary trajectory is one of increasing personalization and self-exposure, of his own coming out.^[115]

Several artists, known as bisexual or homosexual, were reluctant to express their sexual desire in a context of limited tolerance. Agustín Lazo Adalid (1886-1971), pioneer of surrealism in Mexican art, member of Los Contemporáneos and also lover of Villaurrutia, abstained from painting male nudity, even though he was known to be homosexual.^[116] Only three paintings by Alfonso Michel (1897-1957), another member of Los Contemporáneos, show male nudity in ways that are subtly erotic. Michel was homosexual and his wealthy family supported his perpetual wanderings around the world in order to avoid an scandal in the conservative state of Colima, where he grew up.^[116] Manuel Rodríguez Lozano (1896-1971), another member of Los Contemporáneos, never hid his homosexuality and expressed it with great candour in drawings and paintings. His studio attracted younger painters, including Abraham Ángel (1905-1924), Julio Castellanos (1905-1947) and Ángel Torres Jaramillo (1912-1937), with whom Lozano maintained relationships.^[117] Frida Kahlo (1901-1954), one of the most important artist in modern Mexican art, was openly bisexual and wife of world-famous painter Diego Rivera. Her work is seen by artists and critics alike as a crucial contribution to the deconstruction of the art world's male prerogatives and to the recognition of gender and sexual diversity as legitimate objects of visual representation.^[118] Rodolfo Morales (1925-2001) was a famous surrealist painter. Up until his death, Morales was regarded as one of Mexico's greatest living artists.^[119]

Anthologist and journalist Carlos Monsiváis (b. 1938), one of the most highly respected authors in Latin America, is best known as a writer of chronicles and an essayist, mixing both genres in order to describe and explain the complexity of contemporary Mexican society, especially that of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area. Within these parameters, Monsiváis acknowledges his gay identity, although it is not the center of his chronicles. In some of his works Monsiváis criticizes a patriarchal and homophobic society that tends to ignore, to view with prejudice and to harass the Mexican gay community and its manifestations.^[120] Like Monsiváis, José Joaquín Blanco (b. 1951) is primarily known as a journalist and essayist who comments broadly and incisively on the contemporary Mexican scene, particularly that of Mexico City. He includes the gay community in his writings, as in his essay "Ojos Que Da Pánico Soñar" (Eyes that Could Terrify Dreams, 1979), one of the earliest Mexican texts on homosexual identity, and "Las Púberes Canéforas" (The Pubescent Canephoros, 1983), one of five novels Blanco has published to date.^[121]

Mass media and other publications

Singer, songwriter and arranger Juan Gabriel (b. 1950) is one of the most popular and respected personalities in contemporary Mexican music. However, for years he was excluded from radio and television on account of being gay.^[122] Costa Rican singer Chavela Vargas (b. 1919), generally considered Mexican, has one of the most recognizable voices in popular Mexican music. Vargas was faulted for her "obscene behavior", which included flirting with women in the audience and making spectacular entrances on motorcycle. In her autobiography, Vargas relates that she never intended to make a cause out of lesbianism, but she never chose to hide it either.^[123] Cross-dressing actor Francis García (1958-2007) made a successful living portraying female in plays and on television shows.^[124] Openly bisexual actor Gabriel Romero played one of the first openly gay characters portrayed with dignity on Spanish-language television, on 1999 GLAAD Media Award-nominated Telemundo sitcom "Los Beltrán."^[125] Actor, pop star, and former RBD member Christian Chavez (b. 1983) came out in March 2007 after a web site posted pictures of the him kissing another man at a 2005 Canadian civil ceremony. The eventual scandal received massive press coverage. Chávez told BBC News that he did not "want to keep on lying," and addressed his fans asking them not to judge him for being himself. Chávez is one of the few famous Mexican people who are openly gay.^[126]

Famous singer-songwriter Gloria Trevi, known as "Mexico's Madonna", has long supported LGBT people and is considered as a gay icon.^[127] Trevi was quoted as saying she identified with her gay and lesbian fans because "I know what it feels like to be judged, discriminated and rejected."^[128] Her 2006 single and gay anthem^[129] "Todos Me Miran" (Everybody Is Staring at Me) deals with coming out and cross-dressing, Trevi said that she was inspired to write the song after listening to a young friend describe the feelings of hurt and alienation when his conservative family discovered he was gay.^[128] Another gay icon is pop singer Paulina Rubio, who has supported same-sex marriage.^[128] In late 2008, Rubio criticized actor Eduardo Verastegui for encouraging people to vote "yes" on Proposition 8 in order to ban same-sex marriage in California, U.S.^[130]

OHM is currently the only Mexican high-profile gay magazine distributed nationwide.^[131] Several well-known celebrities have been featured on the cover of the magazine including actors Gael García and Luis Roberto Guzmán, pop singers Belinda, Ari Borovoy and Christian Chávez, and singer-songwriters Miguel Bosé and Gloria Trevi, among others.^[132] Mexico's only lesbian magazine, Les Voz, is sold publicly in Mexico City, Guadalajara and Tijuana. Elsewhere in Mexico it is only available by subscription, due to the lack of lesbian-friendly outlets outside these centers.^[133]

HIV and AIDS issues

The first AIDS case in Mexico was diagnosed in 1983.^[134] Based on retrospective analyses and other public health investigation techniques, HIV in Mexico can be traced back to 1981.^[135] LGBT groups were instrumental in initiating programs to combat AIDS, a shift in focus that curtailed, at least temporarily, emphasis on gay organizing.^[15]

The National Center for the Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS (CENSIDA) is a program that promotes the prevention and the control of the AIDS pandemic, by means of public policies, promotion of the sexual health and other strategies based on the evidence to diminish the transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (VIH) and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) and to improve the quality of life of the affected people, in a frame of respect to the rights of all the population.^[136] CENSIDA has been active since 1988 and collaborates with other government entities as well as with non-governmental organizations including those of persons living with HIV/AIDS.^[137]

With 0.3 percent of the adult population estimated to be HIV-positive, Mexico has one of the lowest HIV prevalence rates in Latin America and the Caribbean.^[138] Although the overall HIV prevalence is low, UNAIDS estimates that, because of Mexico's large population, approximately 200,000 people were living with HIV/AIDS in 2007. The second largest affected population in the region after Brazil, which had 730,000 people living with HIV/AIDS.^[139] According to CENSIDA, as of 2009, over 220,000 adults are HIV-positive; 60% are men who have sex with men (MSM), 23% are heterosexual women, and 6% are commercial sex workers' clients, mainly heterosexuals.^[140] Over 90% of the reported cases were the result of sexual transmission.^[141]

The spread of HIV/AIDS in Mexico is exacerbated by stigma and discrimination (S&D), which act as a barrier to prevention, testing, and treatment. S&D occur within families, health services, the police, and the workplace.^[137] A study conducted by Infante-Xibille in 2004 of 373 health care providers in three states in Mexico described discrimination within health services. HIV testing was conducted only with perceived high-risk groups, often without informed consent. Patients with AIDS were often isolated.^[137] A 2005 five-city participatory community assessment by Colectivo Sol, a non-governmental organization, found that some HIV hospital patients had a sign over their beds stating they were HIV-positive. There was also discrimination in the workplace.^[137] In León, Guanajuato, researchers found that seven out of 10 people in the study had lost their jobs because of their HIV status. The same study also documented evidence of discrimination that MSM experienced within their families.^[137]

In August 2008, Mexico hosted the 17th International AIDS Conference, a meeting that contributed to breaking down stigmas and highlighting the achievements in the struggle against the illness.^[142] In late 2009, José Ángel Córdova, Health Secretary, said in a statement that Mexico has met the United Nation Millennium Development Goal concerning HIV/AIDS that demands that countries halt and begin to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS before 2015. The infection rate for HIV is 0.4 percent at this time, below the 0.6 percent target set by the World Health Organization (WHO) for Mexico.^[142] About 70 percent of the people requesting treatment for HIV/AIDS arrive without symptoms of the disease, which increases life expectancy by at least 25 years.^[142] Treatment against HIV/AIDS in Mexico is free and is currently offered at 57 specialized clinics to 30,000 of the 60,000 people living with HIV.^[142] The Mexican government spends about $2 billion MXN ($155 million USD) each year on fighting the disease.^[142]

Footnotes

See also

• Recognition of same-sex unions in Mexico
• Same-sex marriage in Mexico City
• Lesbian Groups in Mexico
• Guadalajara Gay Pride
• Human rights in Mexico
• LGBT rights in the Americas
• LGBT rights in the world
• Timeline of LGBT history

References

Peter M. Nardi and Beth E. Schneider. Social perspectives in lesbian and gay studies: a reader. Routledge, 1998. 625 p. ISBN 0415167094. John Middlemist Herrick and Paul H. Stuart. Encyclopedia of social welfare history in North America. SAGE, 2005. 534 p. ISBN 0761925848. Don M. Coerver, Suzanne B. Pasztor, Robert Buffington. Mexico: an encyclopedia of contemporary culture and history. ABC-CLIO, 2004. 621 p. ISBN 1576071324. Yolanda C. Padilla. Gay and lesbian rights organizing: community-based strategies. Routledge, 2004. 235 p. ISBN 1560232757. Ben Sifuentes-Jáuregui. Transvestism, masculinity, and Latin America literature: genders share flesh. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 240 p. ISBN 0312294417. Louis Crompton. Homosexuality & Civilization. Harvard University Press, 2006. 623 p. ISBN 0674022335. Wayne R. Dynes, Warren Johansson, William A. Percy, Stephen Donaldson. Encyclopedia of homosexuality, Volume 2. Garland Pub., 1990. 1484 p. ISBN 0824065441.

George E. Haggerty. Gay histories and cultures: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis, 2000. 986 p. ISBN 0815318804. James Neill. The Origins and Role of Same-Sex Relations in Human Societies. McFarland, 2008. 470 p. ISBN 0786435135. Rudi Bleys. Images of ambiente: homotextuality and Latin American art, 1810-today. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2000. 244 p. ISBN 0826447228. Alfonso G. Jiménez de Sandi Valle, Luis Alberto de la Garza Becerra and Napoleón Glockner Corte. LGBT Pride Parade in Mexico City. National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), 2009. 25 p. Andrew A. Reding. Mexico: Update on Treatment of Homosexuals. U.S. Citizenship and Migration Services. May, 2000. 37 p. María de Jesús González Pérez. LGBT Pride Parade. Metropolitan Autonomous University - Azcapotzalco. El Cotidiano. May-June, 2005. 90-97 p. National Center for the Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS (CENSIDA). VIH/SIDA in Mexico 2009. Mexican Government. December, 2009. 34 p.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: LGBT in Mexico

Informative

• National Council to Prevent Discrimination — official website.
• National Center for the Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS — official website.
• Anodis — Mexican news agency about sexual diversity.

Other

• Gay Mexico — gay online magazine.
• Antros Gay — list of gay bars and clubs in Mexico.
• MexGay — information about gay-friendly tourist destinations in Mexico.

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