Logothete

Logothete (Greek: λογοθέτης, logothétēs, pl. logothétai; Med. Latin: logotheta, pl. logothetae; Italian: logoteta; Romanian: logofăt; Serbian: логотет, logotet) was an administrative title originating in the eastern Roman Empire. In the middle and late Byzantine Empire, it rose to become a senior administrative title, equivalent to a minister or secretary of state. The title spread to other states influenced by Byzantine culture, such as Sicily, Serbia and the Danubian Principalities.

Origin and development

In Greek, logothetēs means "one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates", literally "one who sets the word". The exact origin of the title is unclear; it is found in papyri and works of the Church Fathers denoting a variety of junior officials, mostly charged with fiscal duties.^[1] In the 6th century, under Justinian I, the logothetēs gained in power, as they were placed in charge of the emperor's revenue-gathering measures. They were allowed to keep a twelfth of the sums they would gather for the treasury, and some, such as the notorious Alexander "Scissors", amassed considerable fortunes in this way.^[2][3]

The major transformation of the office came in the early 7th century however: during the Heraclian dynasty, the administrative machinery of the state, inherited from the time of Diocletian and Constantine the Great was thoroughly reformed. Thus the three chief financial "departments" of the old system, the Praetorian Prefecture, the Sacred Largesses (sacrae largitiones) and the Private Domain (res privata) were replaced by logothesia (sing. logothesion) or sekreta (sing. sekreton).^[4][5] This process was the result of severe territorial loss and the need to rationalize revenue collection during the final Byzantine–Persian War and the Muslim conquests, but had already been presaged by Justinian's reforms in the 6th century: the res privata, responsible for the managing of imperial estates, had already been divided by kind into five separate departments.^[6] By the mid-7th century, the sacrae largitiones too disappeared altogether, while its various sections, as those of the praetorian prefecture, were separated and set up as autonomous departments, some of them headed by a logothete. These were under the supervision of the sakellarios, who functioned as a "general comptroller of finances", and ultimately the emperor.^[6][7][1]

The first mention of a logothetēs in a senior position was the "most glorious logothete and patrician" Theodosios in 626, possibly either in charge of the genikon or the stratiōtikon.^[8] Although the first concrete evidence for the existence for many of the subsequent offices is often of a much later date, the chief departments, the genikon, the (e)idikon, the stratiōtikon and the dromos were in place by the late 7th century.^[9] There were also logothetes in the church, assisting the patriarch and the metropolitan bishops, while a logothetēs tou praitoriou was a senior official under the Eparch of Constantinople.^[1]

Under Alexios I Komnenos, the logothetēs tōn sekretōn was instituted, who supervised all state departments, evolving eventually into the megas logothetēs ("Grand Logothete").^[1][10] By the Palaiologan period, the various logothetes had vanished or were converted into purely honorary titles.

The logothetes

Logothete of the Course

The logothetēs tou dromou (λογοθέτης τοῦ δρόμου), in English usually rendered as Logothete of the Course/Drome/Dromos or Postal Logothete, was the head of the department of the Dromos, the Public Post (Latin: cursus publicus, Greek: δημόσιος δρόμος, dēmosios dromos, or simply ὁ δρόμος). The exact origin and date of institution of the office is unclear. The office is explicitly attested for the first time in ca. 762, and is commonly held to be the evolution of the old curiosus cursus publici, the inspector of the Public Post attested in the late 4th-century Notitia Dignitatum under the magister officiorum (Pars Orientalis, XI).^[11][1] As the once-wide ranging duties of the magister officiorum were gradually removed, the office came to control not only the Public Post, but also the Empire's foreign affairs, handling collection of intelligence on foreign peoples, correspondence with foreign princes and the reception of ambassadors.^[11][12]

Gradually, the office evolved into the senior minister and principal advisor to the emperor, until superseded in the 12th century by the logothetēs tōn sekretōn.^[12] As such, he was received in audience every morning by the emperor. Furthermore, according to the De Ceremoniis of Constantine Porphyrogennetos, the logothetēs tou dromou also had significant ceremonial duties: he presented the senior officials at award-giving ceremonies, and obviously had a prominent part in the reception of foreign embassies, as well as the exhibition of captives.^[13] After the reforms of Alexios I, in ca. 1108 the dromos ceased to exist as a department, but the logothetēs remained, now responsible for official communications and for supervising the foreigners resident in Constantinople.^[14]

The subordinates of the logothetēs tou dromou were:

• the prōtonotarios tou dromou (πρωτονοτάριος τοῦ δρόμου), his senior deputy.^[13]
• the chartoularioi tou [oxeōs] dromou (χαρτουλάριοι τοῦ [ὀξέως] δρόμου), who were clerks with the rank of spatharios, combining the functions of the Roman curiosi of the provinces and of the officials in charge of the scrinium barbarorum, the "Bureau of Barbarians".^[13]
• a number of episkeptētai (ἐπισκεπτῆται), officials in charge of the various imperial estates.
• translators (ἐρμηνευταῖ, ermēneutai), also attested (interpretes diversarum gentium) in the Notitia Dignitatum.^[15]
• the kouratōr tou apokrisiareiou (κουράτωρ του ἀποκρισιαρείου), in charge of the apokrisiarieion, a building in Constantinople that housed the foreign envoys.^[15]
• various inspectors, the diatrechontes (διατρέχοντες, the old Roman cursores) and messengers (μανδάτορες, mandatores).^[15]

General Logothete

The logothetēs tou genikou (λογοθέτης τοῦ γενικοῦ), often called genikos logothetēs or simply ho genikos (ὁ γενικός), and usually rendered in English as the General Logothete, was in charge of the "general financial ministry", the genikon [logothesion].^[16]

The genikon was responsible for general taxation and revenue, and also had served as a court for financial cases.^[16] As such, it broadly fulfilled the tasks of the earlier sacrae largitiones, although it was mostly derived from the "general department" of the praetorian prefecture.^[17] The first attested logothetēs tou genikou, the monk Theodotos, is mentioned in 692, but it may have been instituted as early as 626.^[18][19] The bureau of the genikon and its logothete remained one of the chief ministries for the entire middle Byzantine period. During the Komnenian period, its importance declined, but recovered under the Angeloi. Following the sack of Constantinople in 1204 and the dissolution of the Empire, the office was retained as a purely honorary title by the successor state of Nicaea and the restored Palaiologan Empire.^[19] Amongst its holders were significant intellectuals and statesmen, such as George Acropolites and Theodore Metochites. The last recorded logothetēs tou genikou was a certain Iannes Androuses in 1380.^[19] By that time, however, its original functions had long been forgotten; as Pseudo-Kodinos records, "the function of the General Logothete is unknown.^[20]

The subordinates of the logothetēs tou genikou were:

• the chartoularioi megaloi of the sekreton (χαρτουλάριοι μεγάλοι τοῦ σεκρέτου), the heads of the various departments.^[21]
• the chartoularioi tōn arklōn (χαρτουλάριοι τῶν ἀρκλῶν)^[22] or exō chartoularioi (ἔξω χαρτουλάριοι, "outer chartoularioi"). As their name signifies, they were the senior treasury officials posted in the provinces ("outer", i.e. outside Constantinople).^[23][21]
• the epoptai of the themata (ἐπόπται τῶν θεμάτων), who were the officials charged with control of taxation in the provinces.^[21]
• the komētes hydatōn (κόμητες ὑδάτων, "counts of the waters"), officials probably in charge of aqueducts and water supply in the provinces.^[21][24]
• the chartoularios tou oikistikou (χαρτουλάριος τοῦ οἰκιστικοῦ) or simply ho oikistikos, whose precise functions are unknown. It is attested that he was in charge of tax exemptions, and had various juridical duties in some themata in the 11th century; the office may have been associated with the imperial domains (oikoi). By the 11th century, the office had become an independent bureau, but vanishes after that.^[25][26]
• the kommerkiarioi (κομμερκιάριοι), who were customs officials. Attested since the early 6th century, they are likely the successors of the comes commerciorum mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum. Initially stationed at the frontier, after the 7th century they were placed at ports or in charge over entire themata or islands.^[25][27]
• the epi tēs kouratōrias of the basilikoi oikoi (ἐπί τῆς κουρατωρίας [τῶν βασιλικῶν οἴκων], "in charge of the curatorship [of the imperial domains]"), who supervised the imperial estates.^[28]
• the komēs tēs lamias (κόμης τῆς λαμίας), an official probably in charge of the mines and gold bullion (cf. Latin: lamina/lamna, "gold, precious metals"). It is therefore usually assumed that he is the successor of the old comes metallorum per Illyricum. From sigillographic evidence through the 11th century, this office was sometimes combined with the positions of epi tōn oikeiakōn ("in charge of the oikeiakoi, a class of senior courtiers) and of a megas chartoularios of the genikon.^[29][24]
• the dioikētai (διοικηταὶ) where officials who supervised the collection of taxes, assisted by a number of praktores ("agents").^[29]
• the kom[v]entianos (κομ[β]εντιανός), of unknown function.^[30]
• a number of kankellarioi (καγκελλάριοι, from Latin: cancellarius) under a prōtokankellarios. Originally senior officials in the praetorian prefecture, in the middle Byzantine period they were mid-level secretaries in the various ministries.^[31][32]

Military Logothete

The logothetēs toū stratiōtikou (λογοθέτης τοῦ στρατιωτικοῦ), the Logothete of the Military [Fisc], was in charge of the pay and provisioning of the army. This duty was originally exercised by the praetorian prefecture, but the military chest (to stratiōtikon) was eventually detached and formed as a separate logothesion. The first attested logothetēs toū stratiōtikou was Julian, the "most glorious apo hypatōn and patrikios" in 680. The office disappears after 1088.^[31][12]

The exact sphere of duties of the logothete is somewhat obscure. The only direct evidence as to his functions comes from the De Ceremoniis, according to which he oversaw the imposition and exemption from taxes on the households of soldiers. It is also known that by the 11th century, he exercised some juridical functions.^[12] Several scholars (notably E. Stein) have argued that the Military Logothete supervised military affairs in general, such as the levying of troops, the construction of fortifications and the overall military expenditure. This hypothesis however cannot be proved.^[12]

The subordinates of the logothetēs tou stratiōtikou were:

• the chartoularioi of the sekreton (χαρτουλάριοι τοῦ σεκρέτου), the senior subaltern officials of the department.^[31]
• the chartoularioi of the themata (τῶν θεμάτων) and the tagmata (τῶν ταγμάτων), supervising the financial affairs of the thematic troops and the imperial tagmata, respectively.^[31]
• a number of legatarioi (λεγατάριοι), whose exact function is unknown.^[33][11]
• the optiones (ὀπτίονες, from Latin optio), officials responsible for the distribution of pay to the troops.^[11]
• a number of kankellarioi under a prōtokankellarios.^[11]
• a number of mandatores ("messengers").^[11]

Logothete of the Herds

The logothetēs tōn agelōn (λογοθέτης τῶν ἀγελῶν), in English the Logothete of the Herds, was responsible for the state-run estates (mētata) in western Asia Minor that reared horses and mules for the army and the imperial Public Post. His office is commonly accepted to be the evolution of the Roman praepositus gregum, who was subordinate to the comes res privatae. Uniquely among the logothetes, the logothetēs tōn agelōn is listed among the military officials (stratarchai) in the Klētotologion, highlighting the office's close connection with the army.^[34][1] The importance of the office increased from the 10th century, reaching its zenith in the late 13th century, when it was held by several of the most important state officials.^[1]

The subordinates of the logothetēs tōn agelōn were:

• the prōtonotarioi for Asia and Phrygia, where the mētata were apparently concentrated.^[34]
• the dioikētai of the mētata (διοικηταὶ τῶν μητάτων), the administrators of the horse farms and successors to the Roman procuratores saltuum.^[34]
• episkeptētai ("inspectors") and komētes ("counts"), the latter of unclear function.^[34]

Sigillographic evidence also attests to the existence of chartoularioi and of an ek prosōpou ("representative") of the department.^[1]

Eidikos

The epi tou eidikou or simply the eidikos (the one responsible for Special [Affairs]): responsible for the logothesion of the (e)idikon, which supervised the imperial treasury, factories, storehouses and monopolies. An evolution of the Roman comes rerum privatarum.

Logothete of the Praitorion

The logothetēs tou praitōriou (λογοθέτης τοῦ πραιτωρίου) was one of the two principal aides (together with the symponos) of the Eparch of Constantinople.^[35] Literary and sigillographic evidence attests to the existence of this office from the late 7th or early 8th century up to the 11th century. His exact role is unclear, but, since the praitōrion was one of the capital's chief prisons, his functions were probably judicial and police-related.^[36][37]

Grand Logothete

An official supervising all the sekreta was first established by Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118), who created the post of the logothetēs tōn sekretōn (λογοθέτης τῶν σεκρέτων) in an attempt to improve the coordination of the various departments.^[1] The fiscal departments in particular were further grouped under two other officials: the genikon and eidikon were put under the megas logariastēs ("grand accountant") of the sekreta (μέγας λογαριαστής τῶν σεκρέτων), while another megas logariastēs (μέγας λογαριαστής τῶν εὐαγῶν σεκρέτων oversaw the "pious bureaux" (euagē sekreta), i.e. imperial estates and religious foundations.^[38] By the mid-12th century, the logothete of the sekreta had become the megas logothetēs (μέγας λογοθέτης), the Grand Logothete, an office which survived until the fall of the Empire in 1453.

Today the leading offikion among the archons of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople still bears the title of Grand Logothete.^[39]

Logothetes outside Byzantium

Sicily

From the Eastern Empire, the title was borrowed by the West, though it only became firmly established in Sicily, where the logothete occupied the position of chancellor elsewhere, his office being equal if not superior to that of the Magnus Cancellarius. Thus, the title was borne for example by Pietro della Vigna, the all-powerful minister of the emperor Frederick II, king of Sicily.

Romanian principalities

It was also borrowed in the internal organization of the medieval Romanian countries, Moldavia and Wallachia. In Moldavia, the Great Logothete (mare logofăt) was the chief minister of the prince and head of the chancellery, while in Wallachia, he was the second-most senior member of the prince's council, after the ban.^[40]

Several other officials were also called logothetes:^[40]

• Second Logothete (logofăt al doilea), deputy of the Great Logothete.
• Third Logothete (logofăt al treilea), secretary of the Great Logothete.
• Logothete of the treasury (logofăt de vistierie).
• Logothete of the chamber (logofăt de cămară).
• Logothete of the ceremonies (logofăt de obiceiuri)
• Logothete of the secrets (logofăt de taină) or Royal Logothete (Logofăt domnesc), private secretary of the prince.

See also

• Vestiarion
• Byzantine Aristocracy and Bureaucracy
• Chancellor
• Lord Chancellor

References

Sources

• Bury, John B. (1911), The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century - With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos, Oxford University Publishing 
• Evans, James Allan Stewart (1996), The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415237260 
• Haldon, John F. (1997), Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521319171, http://books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C 
• Haldon, John F. (1999), Warfare, state and society in the Byzantine world, 565–1204, Routledge, ISBN 1857284941 
• Haldon, John F. (2009), "The State - 1. Structures and Administration", in Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Haldon, John; Cormack, Robin, The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199252466 
• Kazhdan, Alexander, ed (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. 
• Laiou, Angeliki E., ed. (2002), The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, Dumbarton Oaks, ISBN 0-88402-288-9 
• Louth, Andrew (2005), "The Byzantine Empire in the seventh century", The New Cambridge Medieval History: c.500-c.700, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521362917 
• Magdalino, Paul (2002). The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1. 
• Treadgold, Warren (1997), A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-2