Mahmud II

The Ottoman sultan Mahmud II (1785-1839) attempted to hold together and rebuild the empire by administrative reforms, but interior instability and foreign wars proved obstacles too great to overcome.

Mahmud was born on July 20, 1785, son of Abdul Hamid I and cousin of the reforming ruler Selim III. Immured, as his predecessors had been, within the harem, he was removed from formal education and administrative experience. But the highly intelligent and energetic Mahmud escaped the debilitating weakness trapping other Osmanli through the instruction accorded him by Selim III between the latter's dethronement in May 1807 and his execution in July 1808 as his reform-minded supporters battered down the palace gates. The reigning sultan, Mustafa IV, even ordered the execution of Mahmud, his own brother, but the prince escaped detection by hiding in an empty furnace.

Mustafa was deposed, Mahmud was elevated to the throne, and a reform administration was returned to power. Within the year a Janissary revolt temporarily ended modernization efforts. To assure his position, Mahmud had Mustafa, his only male Ottoman relative, executed, assuring loyalty to himself as the last of the Osmanli.

Few changes were made domestically through the Napoleonic period, since Mahmud was consolidating governmental control over the provinces. Local power structures were reduced on both sides of the Bosporus, and Ottoman authority was reestablished in Mesopotamia (1810) and the Hejaz (1813). Serbian autonomy was recognized after the Turks failed to regain control, and the Russians, in a war begun in December 1806, acquired Bessarabia by the Treaty of Bucharest on May 28, 1812. Internationally, the Great Powers at the Congress of Vienna tacitly allowed Turkey to reestablish the ancient rule on Straits navigation, providing the waterway be closed to all warships in peacetime.

Wars and Revolts

The Greek War for Independence occupied nearly a decade of Mahmud's reign, from the initial weak rebellion in the Morea (Peloponnesus) in 1820 to the Russian intervention of 1828 - 1829. Despite Turco-Egyptian control of the situation, international pressure, including the destruction of the Turkish and Egyptian fleets by a tripartite European force at Navarino in 1827, forced recognition of full Greek independence upon the Sultan.

The purpose of the reforms for which Mahmud is noted was to strengthen the central government's powers and widen its sphere of influence. The basis for change was a modern army, not the fractious, undisciplined Janissaries, whose complaints had disrupted the state, to one degree or another, since raiding had ceased to be a profitable enterprise. On June 16, 1826, backed by 14,000 loyal artillerymen, Mahmud provoked a typical Janissary assault on the palace. The attackers were wiped out, and Janissaries throughout the empire were destroyed or dispersed.

Unfortunately, before Mahmud could fully train their replacements and so gain the power to enforce his restored authority, Russia declared war. This attack permanently stunted the growth of the new Turkish army; it also resulted in the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), which, although not seriously affecting Ottoman borders, ended most Turkish control over the Balkans by providing for the lifetime appointment of governors and reducing provincial obligations to a province's annual tribute payment.

Mahmud's Reforms

Internal changes during Mahmud's reign were largely military. Feudalism was abolished throughout the empire, eliminating the cavalry and recruits provided by local fief holders. National recruiting was less effective; yet, by 1834, a militia provided at least fundamental training at the local level. To strengthen his new army, the Sultan established military schools, sent officers to England to study, and imported Prussian military advisers.

The result of these military changes was increased control over local government. The Kurds of Iraq were subdued. Tripoli was effectively reintegrated, but Algiers was lost to France, straining relations with the Sultan. One salutary administrative change was removal of the right of provincial governors to impose the death penalty. Civil service training was improved, and better salaries created a more efficient administration, reducing the need for graft. Further improvement resulted from tax reforms which eliminated inefficient collection methods and so improved revenues.

Power Struggles

To ensure his changes, Mahmud attempted to curtail religious powers that might inspire counterreformation movements. Persecution of the various dervish orders followed the Janissary massacre. In this attempt the Sultan only partially succeeded. However, widespread distribution of Western literature through the establishment of local presses spread Europe's 19th-century liberal ideas and advanced the modernizing process. For his efforts, Mahmud was roundly hated by his Moslem subjects, a factor exacerbating his dislike of popular Mohammed Ali, his Egyptian vassal.

The Egyptians, seeking compensation for their assistance during the Greek revolt, invaded the Levant in 1831, taking city after city, even into Anatolia. In the Convention of Kütahya on April 8, 1833, Cairo gained Syria, but Egyptian troops pulled back behind the Taurus Mountains.

The Russians had landed troops in the Bosporus region during the crisis, ostensibly to aid the Sultan. This led to the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi (July 4, 1833), which effected a major change in Turkey's relations with Europe. The treaty was an alliance between the signatories assigning to the Czar the right unilaterally to intervene in Turkish affairs - heretofore the prerogative of the Great Powers acting in concert. Mahmud's hatred of Mohammed Ali grew.

Toward the end of his reign, the strong-minded Mahmud was faced with rebellions in Bosnia and Albania, but the European provinces were nevertheless sufficiently stable in 1837 for the energetic sultan to make an unprecedented trip through that area. In his last days, he ill-advisedly ordered a new attack on the Egyptians in Syria. News of the Turkish defeat at Nizib on June 24, 1839, never reached the dying Mahmud. On July 1, 1839, he was succeeded by his 16-year-old son, Abdul Mejid.

Further Reading

General biographical information on Mahmud II is in Frederick Stanley Rodkey, The Turco-Egyptian Question in the Relations of England, France and Russia, 1832-1841 (1924), and A. D. Alderson, The Structure of the Ottoman Dynasty (1956).

1785 - 1839

Ottoman sultan, 1808 - 1839.

Mahmud, the youngest of twelve sons of Sultan Abdülhamit I, ascended the throne of the Ottoman Empire on 28 July 1808. Demonstrating strong leadership and dedication to traditional values, he gradually assembled a coalition of religious and political leaders who desired to reestablish orderly government. During Mahmud's reign, the Ottoman Empire continued its decline in relation to the West: Its dependence on Europe increased, and it suffered military humiliation and territorial losses. But within the reduced confines of his realm, Mahmud's achievements were considerable. He resurrected the sultan's office and reformed and rejuvenated the central government. He arrested the disintegration of the state and initiated a process of consolidation. In spite of his intensive reform activities, Mahmud did not attempt to alter the basic fabric of Ottoman society, rather to strengthen it through modern means, and generally he succeeded in integrating the old elite into the new institutions. This was in keeping with his strong attachment to the ideal of justice in the traditional Ottoman sense. The sobriquet he selected for himself, "Adli" (Just, or Lawful), is an indication of the cast of his mind. Although he may not have intended it, Mahmud's reforms produced basic change and launched Ottoman society on the course of modernization in a final and irrevocable manner.

Wars with Russia (1806 - 1812, 1828 - 1829) resulted in the Ottomans ceding to Russia the area of Bessarabia (Treaty of Bucharest, 28 May 1812) and subsequently the Danube delta in Europe and the province of Akhaltsikhe (Ahisha) in Asia (Treaty of Adrianople, 14 September 1829). The latter treaty also required the Ottomans to pay Russia a sizable indemnity and to recognize the autonomy of Serbia, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Greece under Russian protection. Later, as a result of negotiations among the European powers, Greece became an independent monarchy (July 1832).

During his efforts to quell the rebellion in Greece (1821 - 1828), Mahmud appealed to Muhammad Ali, his governor of Egypt, for assistance. Although Egypt's newly formed, European-style army initially was successful (1825 - 1827), the plight of the Greeks elicited European intervention. Britain, France, and Russia sent their fleets to Greece, and on 20 October 1827, inside the harbor of Navarino, they destroyed an Ottoman-Egyptian fleet. Muhammad Ali sought compensation for his losses in Greece and demanded that Mahmud cede to him the governorship of Syria. When this request was rejected, Egypt's army invaded Syria (October 1831), defeated three Ottoman armies, marched into Anatolia, occupied Kütahya (2 February 1833), and was poised to march on Constantinople. Mahmud sought help from the great powers, but only Russia dispatched a naval force to defend Constantinople (February 1833). This induced Britain and France to offer mediation that resulted in the Peace of Kütahya (8 April), which conferred on Muhammad Ali the governorship of Syria and the province of Adana.

Despite military disasters, Mahmud proceeded with his reform measures, continuing to focus on centralization of government and greater efficiency in its work. Since early in his reign, he had introduced significant improvements in the military, especially in the artillery and the navy. In the spring of 1826, with his authority restored at the capital and in many provinces, Mahmud decided to reorganize part of the janissary corps as an elite unit of active soldiers called Eşkinciyan. Mahmud enlisted the support of the religious and bureaucratic elite as well as the janissary officers themselves. Nevertheless, on the night of 14 June the janissaries rose up in arms. Mahmud mustered loyal troops, and on 15 June the rebellion was crushed with considerable bloodshed. Two days later an imperial decree abolished the janissary corps.

The suppression of the janissaries had an enormous impact on Ottoman society and also in Europe, where the Janissary Corps had been viewed for five centuries as the military strength of the Ottoman Empire. In an effort to gain universal approval, the regime called the incident "the Beneficial Affair" (Vaka-i Hayriye). The Eşkinciyan project was abandoned in favor of a more ambitious plan calling for the formation of an entirely new army organized and trained according to Western models. Military defeats and the apparent failure of the government's attempts to reform the army rekindled unrest and rebellion in far-flung provinces, especially in Bosnia, Albania, eastern Anatolia, and Baghdad. The government was generally successful in suppressing these uprisings by employing the newly disciplined troops, who proved effective at coercion and centralization.

In 1835 Mahmud reconstituted the entire government into three independent branches: the civil bureaucracy, the religious-judicial hierarchy, and the military. Their respective heads were considered equal and were responsible directly to the sultan. The aggrandizement of the court, now the seat of all power, was mainly at the expense of the grand vizier's office. To underscore the reduction of his authority, in 1838 the grand vizier's title officially was changed to prime minister. At the same time, his chief assistants were given the title of minister. Consultative councils were established to supervise military and civil matters and to propose new legislation. The highest of these, the Supreme Council for Judicial Ordinances (Meclis-i Vala-yi Ahkam-i Adliye), established in 1838, acted as an advisory council to the sultan.

The military, which during Mahmud's last years was allocated about 70 percent of the state's revenues, continued to be the focal point of reform. Most significant was the gradual extension of the authority of the commander-in-chief. His office came to combine the roles of a ministry of war and general staff, and was in charge of all land forces. The navy continued to operate independently under the grand admiral, whose administration comprised a separate ministry.

In May 1835 an Ottoman expeditionary force occupied Tripoli in Africa, claiming it back for the sultan. In the following years, Ottoman fleets appeared several times before Tunis, but were turned back by the French navy. In the spring of 1839, believing that his army had sufficiently recovered and that a general uprising in Syria against Egypt's rule was imminent, Mahmud precipitated another crisis. On 24 June the Egyptians decisively routed the Ottoman army at Nizip. Mahmud died on 1 July, probably before learning of his army's defeat.

Bibliography

Berkes, Niyazi. The Development of Secularism in Turkey. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964.

Levy, Avigdor. "The Officer Corps in Sultan Mahmud II's New Ottoman Army, 1826 - 1839." International Journal of Middle East Studies 2 (1971): 21 - 39.

Levy, Avigdor. "Ottoman Attitudes to the Rise of Balkan Nationalism." In War and Society in East Central Europe, Vol. 1, edited by Bela K. Kiraly and G. E. Rothenberg. New York: Brooklyn College Press, 1979.

Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Ulema and the Military Reforms of Sultan Mahmud II." Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 13 - 39.

Shaw, Stanford J., and Shaw, Ezel Kural. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

— AVIGDOR LEVY
UPDATED BY ERIC HOOGLUND

Mahmud II
Ottoman Sultan
Caliph
Reign	1808–39
Period	Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire
Full Name	Mahmud II
Predecessor	Mustafa IV
Successor	Abdülmecid I
Royal House	House of Osman
Dynasty	Ottoman Dynasty
Religious beliefs	Sunni Islam

Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) (20 July 1785  – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. He was born at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, the son of Sultan Abdul Hamid I. His reign is notable mostly for the extensive legal and military reforms he instituted. His mother was Valide Sultan Naksh-i-Dil Haseki Sultan (there have been speculations that she was a cousin of Napoleon's wife Josephine, but this is now widely regarded as false.;^[1] see Aimée du Buc de Rivéry).

Contents 1 Accession 2 Reign overview 2.1 Marriages and issue 3 Reforms 3.1 Legal reforms 3.2 Military reforms 4 In Fiction 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

Accession

In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor (and half-brother) Mustafa IV (1807–08) ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III (1789–1807), in order to defuse a rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Mustafa Bayrakdar, then became Mahmud II's vizier.

There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th century Ottoman historian Cevdet Pasha gives the following account: one of his slaves, a Georgian girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the Harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporary blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the Harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Pasha arrived with his armed men and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as padishah. The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed haznedar usta, the chief treasurer of the imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the Altınyol (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her.^[2]

Reign overview

The stylized signature of Mahmud II was written in an expressive calligraphy. It reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdülhamid is forever victorious.

The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However, soon the vizier was killed by Ibrahim's army, and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts were more successful.

During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his Egyptian viceroy Mehmet Ali Paşa successfully reconquered the holy cities of Medina (1812) and Mecca (1813) from the Nejdi rebels.

His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece gaining its independence following a rebellion that started in 1821. In 1827 the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Navarino; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the occupation of the Ottoman province of Algeria by France in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements.

Among Mahmud II's most notable achievements, the Janissary corps was abolished in 1826, permitting the establishment of a modern Ottoman Army; Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks in 1831 and the preparation of the Tanzimat reforms in 1839. The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in Turkey, and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization and land reform.

He was concerned also for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He also ordered his archery student, Mustafa Kani, to write a book about the history, construction, and use of Turkish bows, from which comes most of what is now known of Turkish bowyery.^[3]

Mahmud II died of tuberculosis - some say murdered - at the Esma Sultana Palace, Çamlıca, in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son Abdülmecid succeeded him.

Marriages and issue

He married firstly an unknown wife and had:

• HIH Prince Şehzade Suleiman Efendi (1818 - 1819)

He married secondly HH Valide Sultan Bezmiâlem, originally named Suzi (1807 - 1852), a Russian Jew, and had:

• Abdülmecid I

He married thirdly an unknown wife and had:

• HIH Prince Şehzade Kemaluddin Efendi, unmarried and without issue

He married fourthly HH Valide Sultan Pertevniyal, originally named Bezime (1812 - 1883),^[4][5] and had:

• Abdülaziz I

The name of his fourth wife is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal".^[6] By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahçe Palace. That year Abdülaziz led the visiting Empress Eugénie of France to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugenie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.^[7] The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque was built under the patronage of his mother. The construction work began in November 1869 and the mosque was finished in 1871.^[8]

Reforms

Legal reforms

Mahmud II after his clothing reform

Among his reforms are the edicts (or firmans), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the Pashas.

Previous to the first of the Firmans the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile Delators.

The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the Paşas, the Ağas, and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadi, and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system by a criminal to one of the Kazaskers of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to persist in his appeal.

About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of secluding himself from the labors of state. The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I, and was considered as one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.

Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the Vakifs, by placing their revenues under state administration. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government.

In his time the financial situation of the Empire was troubling, and certain social classes had long been under oppression under difficult taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs. A Firman of February 22, 1834 abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."

The haraç, or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The Firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it, and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the Kadı, the Muslim governors, and the Ayans, or municipal chiefs of Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were effected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.

Military reforms

For more details on this topic, see Ottoman military reform efforts.

Mahmudiye (1829), ordered by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and built by the Imperial Naval Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Istanbul, was for many years the largest warship in the world. The 62x17x7m ship-of-the-line was armed with 128 cannons on 3 decks. She participated in many important naval battles, including the Siege of Sevastopol (1854-1855) during the Crimean War (1854-1856). She was decommissioned in 1875.

Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the "Tımar"s and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the Dere Beys, the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire.

The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not effected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent insurrections. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of empire in which power not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by Dere Beys.

His most notable achievement was the abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman Army, named the Nizam-ı Cedid (meaning New Order in Ottoman Turkish).

Following the loss of the Ottoman Vilayet of Greece after the Battle of Navarino against the combined British-French-Russian fleets in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steam ships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the 62x17x7 m ship of the line Mahmudiye, the world's largest warship for many years, which was armed with 128 cannons on 3 decks, was built by the Imperial Naval Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Istanbul.

In Fiction

The 2006 historical detective novel, "The Janissary Tree" by Jason Goodwin is set in 1836 Istanbul, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes.

See also

• Atçalı Kel Mehmet Efe

References

1. ^ Christine Isom-Verhaaren, "Royal French Women in the Ottoman Sultans' Harem: The Political Uses of Fabricated Accounts from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-first Century", Journal of World History, vol. 17, No. 2, 2006
2. ^ Davis, Claire (1970). The Palace of Topkapi in Istanbul. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 214–217. ASIN B000NP64Z2. 
3. ^ Paul E Klopsteg. Turkish Archery and the Composite Bow. Chapter I, Background of Turkish Archery. Second edition, revised, 1947, published by the author, 2424 Lincolnwood Drive, Evanston, Ill.
4. ^ His profile in the Ottoman Web Site
5. ^ Daniel T. Rogers, "All my relatives: Valide Sultana Partav-Nihal"
6. ^ Daniel T. Rogers, "All my relatives: Valide Sultana Partav-Nihal"
7. ^ "Women in Power" 1840-1870, entry: "1861-76 Pertevniyal Valide Sultan of The Ottoman Empire"
8. ^ "Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque Complex". Discover Islamic Art. http://www.discoverislamicart.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;tr;Mon01;30;en. Retrieved 2008-01-26. 

• Incorporates text from "History of Ottoman Turks" (1878)

External links

• Media related to Mahmud II at Wikimedia Commons

Mahmud II House of Osman Born: July 20, 1785 Died: July 1, 1839
Regnal titles
Preceded by Mustafa IV	Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Nov 15, 1808 - Jul 1, 1839	Succeeded by Abdulmecid I
Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by Mustafa IV	Caliph of Islam Nov 15, 1808 - Jul 1, 1839	Succeeded by Abdulmecid I

v • d • e Sultans of the Ottoman Empire by era Rise (1299–1453) Osman I · Orhan · Murad I · Bayezid I · Mehmed I · Murad II · Mehmed II Growth (1453–1683) Bayezid II · Selim I · Suleiman I · Selim II · Murad III · Mehmed III · Ahmed I · Mustafa I · Osman II · Murad IV · Ibrahim · Mehmed IV Stagnation (1683–1827) Suleiman II · Ahmed II · Mustafa II · Ahmed III · Mahmud I · Osman III · Mustafa III · Abdülhamid I · Selim III · Mustafa IV · Mahmud II Decline (1828–1908) Abdülmecid I · Abdülaziz · Murad V · Abdülhamid II Dissolution (1908–1923) Mehmed V · Mehmed VI  · Abdulmecid II

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