Metals

Asia Minor was rich in iron and had some copper. Copper was also mined in northern Syria, in a region known to the authors of the El Amarna Letters as the "Land of Copper". More important, however, were the copper mines of Cyprus, whence copper (late Latin: cuprum) took its name. Some iron and some copper were also found in Lebanon. In Palestine the important sources of copper were those of the southern Arabah, Sinai and Punon (Wadi Feinan), east of the Arabah, which were exploited at different periods (the attribution of these mines to Solomon now seems very doubtful), and particularly by the Midianites. Ezekiel knew that the metals used in Palestine were brought by Tyrian merchants from Tarshish (Ezek 27:12), and Solomon set up foundries in the Jordan Valley (I Kgs 7:46).

Knowledge of mining activities in the biblical period is limited. Surface veins of metal ore were exploited, and the possibility that tunnels were dug in order to reach richer deposits should not be excluded. Job 28:1-7 may have been alluding such methods. Metals were probably brought to Palestine in bars, from which the finished products were produced locally. Crucibles for founding copper and iron have been discovered in several places in Palestine. Some of the installations used in metal-founding are mentioned in the Bible, examples being the iron furnace (Deut 4:20) and the furnace (Is 48:10). Precious metals were worked by beating, soldering, engraving and in the filigree technique. A vivid picture of the metal worker may be found in Isaiah (41:6-7).

GOLD This precious metal was mined in Egypt in early times. The Bible uses many different names for gold, some of which refer to its quality, such as "pure gold" (Ex 25:36, 38; I Kgs 6:20-21); "refined gold" (I Chr 28:18); and "hammered gold" (I Kgs 10:17). Gold is also associated with Ophir: "wedge of Ophir" (Is 13:12); "gold of Ophir" (I Chr 29:4) or, in Hebrew, just "Ophir" (Job 22:24). The Israelites most probably acquired the goldsmith's art while in Egypt. According to the Bible many of the vessels used in the tabernacle were made of gold.

There is no gold in Palestine, so it had to be brought from other countries including Tarshish, India or Arabia. The Phoenicians brought gold from Havilah (Gen 2:11), buying it from Arabian merchants (Ezek 27:22). Solomon sent a fleet to bring gold from Ophir. Gold coins were not minted before the Persian period; until then payments were made in metal (cf Josh 7:21). Gold was one of the gifts brought by the three wise men to the infant Jesus in Bethlehem (Mat 2:11).

SILVER A precious metal, known in very early times. In Palestine silver vessels have been found in archeological strata as early as the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Silver was used for producing cups, bowls, plates and jewelry. The richest silver mines in the ancient world were in Spain. There were also silver mines in the mountains bordering the Red Sea and quantities of silver were found in Anatolia, which supplied the needs of Babylon.

This metal is rarely found in the pure state. The crude ore, which contains other elements, mainly lead, is refined by a process of smelting. At high temperatures the molten lead and other heavier substances sink, while the lighter silver floats (cf Jer 6:28-30; Ezek 22:17-22). Silver was highly esteemed because of its comparative rarity and because of its chemical and physical properties. Together with gold and copper it was used as payment, in barter (Gen 20:16, etc.) and for paying taxes (I Kgs 15:19). Images of gods were made of silver (Ex 20:23), as were jewelry and household utensils (Ex 3:22; 11:2, etc.). Together with gold, silver was much used in the tabernacle (Ex chap. 26) and in the Temple (II Chr chap. 2, etc.). Silver mines are mentioned in Job 28:1 and methods of refining it are often referred to (Prov 17:3; Zech 13:9). Solomon imported silver from Arabia (II Chr 9:14) and Tarshish (II Chr 9:21; Jer 10:9).

In the Hellenistic and Roman periods silver was freely used in everyday life and the art of the silversmith was soon highly developed (for the silversmiths of Ephesus, see Acts 19:24ff).

COPPER The metal referred to by this name in the Bible is bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin. Copper in its pure form was rarely used. Bronze was the most useful and most important of metals from the beginning of the 3rd millennium B.C. down to the 13th century B.C. when iron began to supplant it. Weapons, agricultural implements, mining tools, household utensils and jewelry were all made of bronze. The Egyptians exploited the copper mines of Sinai, where smelting was also carried out. It was also mined in the Arabah (Punon) and, early in the Iron Age, at Timnah, northwest of the Gulf of Elath. The copper-bearing ore was ground in stone mortars and subsequently smelted in crucibles made of clay. Slag heaps abound in the southern part of Sinai and along the southern Arabah. According to I Kings 7:46 Solomon cast the copper vessels of the Temple between Succoth and Zaretan, but no traces of this have as yet been discovered there.

IRON Since iron is very hard to separate from its oxides, it was the last of the metals that the ancient world learned to produce, and was not used until about 2,000 years after bronze. The frequent allusions in the Bible to the use of iron in conjunction with copper are considered by many scholars to be anachronistic. The Egyptians knew the rare meteoritic iron as early as about 3000 B.C. and used it to produce weapons, but it was not until the 13th century B.C. that the secrets of separating iron from its oxides was discovered. The credit for this discovery goes to the Hittites, from whose territory it was brought by the merchants of Tyre to Syria and Palestine. The wanderings of the Sea Peoples (Philistines) brought more iron to the Near East. According to archeological data the metal was known in Palestine from about the time of their arrival in Canaan; iron weapons have been found in tombs of Philistine warriors, together with tools and jewelry made of the same metal. According to the Bible, its production was monopolized by the Philistines (I Sam 13:19-20). There was very little iron in Palestine, and its seems that the metal that was used was brought from abroad by Phoenician merchants. Iron ores are mentioned in the Sinai peninsula, but it is doubtful whether they were in fact exploited (cf Deut 4:20; I Kgs 8:51). Iron was also brought from Tarshish (Ezek 27:12), and a special kind came from Jevan (Ezek 27:19). Bolts for gates (Is 45:2), nails (I Chr 22:3), agricultural implements (I Sam 13:20-1), weapons (Num 35:16), chains (Ps 105:18), chariots (Josh 17:16) and weights (I Sam 17:7) were all made of iron.

TIN In the Bible tin is mentioned in conjunction with copper (AV: "brass"), lead and iron (Num 31:22). According to Ezekiel (22:18-20) it was brought from Tarshish, together with silver, copper, iron and lead. In the Hellenistic and later periods it was obtained from Europe.

LEAD No lead is found in Palestine but there are comparatively rich deposits in Syria and Asia Minor. The Phoenicians brought it from Tarshish (Ezek 27:12). Although it is rarely found in the strata of the biblical periods its use was known (cf Ex 15:10; Amos 7:7). During the time of the Second Temple it was used for weights, slingstones, images of gods and as a binding material between stones used for building.