military government

 

rule of enemy territory under military occupation. It is distinguished from martial law, which is the temporary rule by domestic armed forces over disturbed areas. The practices of military government were standardized before World War I, notably at the Hague Conferences (1899, 1907) and form a part of the laws of war (see war, laws of).

During and after World War II, vast territories came under military government. During the war, Germany administered occupied countries through a hierarchy of Kommandaturen [military government headquarters], but this normal army administration was often duplicated by civilian economic agencies and Gestapo personnel. In France, Norway, Greece, and Serbia, local puppet governments were authorized to operate under German control; Belgium and NE France were under purely military government; in Eastern Europe, authority was concentrated in 1941 in the ministry for eastern occupied territories. German military government often violated the rules laid down by the Hague Conventions.

Allied Military Government (AMG) began to function in Sicily and in Italy in 1943; it sought to utilize local civilian authorities to the widest possible extent. When operating in Allied territory, such as France, AMG became Civil Affairs and was limited to combat areas. After the termination of military operations, Germany and Austria were divided (1945) into four occupation zones and military government was reorganized. At first it was subject in general policy to the authority of the U.S.-Soviet-British-French Allied Control Councils in Berlin and Vienna. In time, the growing dissension between the Western powers and the USSR led to the breakdown of the quadripartite system in Germany and in Berlin. The British, French, and American zones were soon amalgamated for most purposes and ultimately became the state of West Germany; in opposition to them stood the Soviet zone, which later became the East German state.

In Austria and Vienna disharmony was less evident, and military control ended in 1955 with the signing of a peace treaty between Austria and the four Allied occupying powers. In Japan, military government became a solely American responsibility, though subject to suggestions of an 11-power Allied council. It was ended by the signing of the peace treaty with Japan (1951).

In response to the experiences of World War II, a new convention covering military occupation was signed in Geneva in 1949. In recent years, the most prominent military occupation of a region has been that by Israeli forces of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Bibliography

See E. Fraenkel, Military Occupation and the Rule of Law (1944); C. J. Friedrich, ed., American Experiences in Military Government in World War II (1948); D. A. Graber, Development of the Law of Military Occupation, 1863–1914 (1948, repr. 1969); C. Clapman et al., ed., The Political Dilemmas of Military Regimes (1985).

A military dictatorship is a form of government wherein the political power resides with the military; it is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military.

Nature and typology

Like any dictatorship, a military dictatorship may be official or unofficial, and as a result may not actually qualify as stratocratic (some military dictators, like Panama's Manuel Noriega, are nominally subordinate to the civil government). Mixed forms also exist, where the military exerts a very strong influence without being entirely dominant.

The declaration by which a military coup d'état is made official is called a pronunciamento, from the Spanish pronunciamiento, 'proclamation'.

The typical military dictatorship in Latin America was ruled by a junta (derived from a Spanish word which can be translated as "conference" or "board"), or a committee composed of several officers, often from the military's most senior leadership, but in other cases (e.g. when their military superiors remained loyal to, or indeed were, the previous regime) less senior, as evidenced by the term colonels' regime. Other military dictatorships are entirely in the hands of a single officer, usually the senior army commander. In either case, the chairman of the junta or the single commander may often personally assume office as head of state.

In the Middle East and Africa, military governments more often came to be led by a single powerful person, and were autocracies in addition to military dictatorships. Leaders like Idi Amin, Muammar al-Qaddafi, and Gamal Abdul Nasser worked to develop a personality cult and became the face of the nation inside and outside their countries.

Most military dictatorships are formed after a coup d'état has overthrown the previous government. One very different pattern was the one followed by Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq, which began as a one-party state ruled by the Ba'ath Party, but over the course of its existence turned into a military dictatorship (as its leaders donned uniforms and the military became closely involved in the government). Conversely, other military dictatorships may gradually restore significant components of civilian government while the senior-most military commander still maintains supreme political power. In Pakistan, ruling Generals Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (1977-1988) and Pervez Musharraf (1999 till present) have held singular referendums to elect themselves President of Pakistan for a further several years, as well as general elections voting in civilian Prime Ministers (politically subordinate to the President). Despite this, the Pakistan Army maintained a monopoly over the power structure in both cases, with the country's four provinces entirely coming under the dictatorial military rule of senior generals in the President's cabinet, such as General Rahimuddin Khan's authoritarian and unprecedentedly long rule over Balochistan, the country's largest province.

In the past, military juntas have justified their rule as a way of bringing political stability for the nation or rescuing it from the threat of "dangerous ideologies". In Latin America the threat of communism was often used, while in the Middle East the desire to oppose Israel and later Islamic fundamentalism proved an important motivating pattern. Military regimes tend to portray themselves as non-partisan, as a "neutral" party that can provide interim leadership in times of turmoil, and also tend to portray civilian politicians as corrupt and ineffective. One of the almost universal characteristics of a military government is the institution of martial law or a permanent state of emergency.

Although there are exceptions, military regimes usually have little respect for human rights and use whatever means necessary to silence political opponents. A military regime is also rarely willing to leave power unless forced to by popular revolt, whether active or imminent.

Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East have been common areas for military dictatorships. One of the reasons for this is the fact that the military often has more cohesion and institutional structure than most of the civilian institutions of society.

Military dictatorships can be contrasted with other forms of dictatorship. For example, in most current and historical Communist states, the center of power rests among civilian party officials, and very careful measures (such as political commissars and frequent rotations) are taken to prevent the military from exercising independent authority.

Since the 1990s, military dictatorships have become less common. Reasons for this include the fact that military dictatorships no longer have much international legitimacy, as well as the fact that many militaries having unsuccessfully ruled many nations are now inclined not to become involved in political disputes. Furthermore, the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union made it more difficult for military regimes to use the threat of communism as justification for their actions, or to gain support from foreign sources.

As the Cold War began to wind down, in the Middle East, regimes such as those of Syria and Egypt that were once clearly military dictatorships have switched to other forms of despotism.

Cases

The following lists are probably incomplete, especially before World War II.

Nations currently under military rule

• Fiji - since the 2006 Fijian coup d'état; see also 1987 Fijian coups d'état and 2000 Fijian coup d'état
• Thailand - since the 2006 Thai coup d'état
• Pakistan - since the 1999 Pakistani coup d'état resulted in Pervez Musharraf seizing power
• Libya - since the 1969 Libyan coup d'état resulted in Muammar al-Gaddafi seizing power
• Myanmar (Burma) - since the 1962 Burmese coup d'état resulted in Ne Win seizing power; currently the Tatmadaw (armed forces) still leads under the auspices of the State Peace and Development Council

Nations with a legacy of military dictatorship(s)

In Africa

• Algeria (1965-1994)
• Burkina Faso (1966-1991)
• Burundi (1966-1993)
• Central African Republic (1966-1979, 1981-1993)
• Chad (1975-1991)
• Congo-Brazzaville (1968-1992)
• Congo-Kinshasa (1965-2003)
• Egypt (1952-present)
• Equatorial Guinea (1968-1987)
• Ethiopia (1974-1991)
• Gambia, The (1994-1996)
• Guinea (1984-1991)
• Ghana (1966-1969, 1972-1979, 1981-1993)
• Liberia (1980-1990)
• Libya (1969-present)
• Madagascar (1972-1993)
• Mauritania (1978-1992, 2005-2007)
• Niger (1974-1989, 1996-1999)
• Nigeria (1966-1979, 1983-1999)
• Rwanda (1973-1994)
• Sierra Leone (1967-1968, 1992-1996, 1997-1998)
• Somalia (1969-1991; then local militia rule)
• Sudan (1958-1964, 1969-1986, 1989-Present)
• Uganda (1971-1986)

In the Americas

• Argentina (1930-1932, 1943-1946, 1955-58, 1962-1963, 1966-1973, 1976-1983)
• Bolivia (1964-1982)
• Brazil (1930–1934, 1937–1945, 1964-1985)
• Chile (1973-1990)
• Colombia (1953-1957)
• Cuba (1933-1940, 1952-1959)
• Dominican Republic (1844-1978 with a few exceptions)
• Ecuador (1963-1966, 1972-1979)
• El Salvador (1931-1984)
• Guatemala (1931-1944, 1954-1986)
• Haiti (1957-1990, 1991-1994)
• Honduras (1963-1971, 1972-1982)
• Nicaragua (1936-1979)
• Panama (1968-1989)
• Paraguay (1940-1948, 1949-1989)
• Peru (1948-1956, 1968-1980)
• Suriname (1980-1988)
• Uruguay (1973-1985)
• Venezuela (1908-1935, 1952-1958)

In Asia

• Bangladesh (1975-1990)
• Burma/Myanmar(1962-Present)
• Republic of China (local militia rule 1916-1928; military rule 1928-1949)
• Indonesia (1967-1998)
• Iraq (1958-1968, 1979-2003)
• Japan (1932-1945)
• Pakistan (1958-1971, 1978-1988, 1999-Present)
• South Korea (1961-1979, 1980-1988)
• South Vietnam (1963-1975)
• Taiwan (1949-1975)
• Thailand (1933-1957, 1958-1973, 1976-1988, 1991-1992 2006-Present)

In Europe

• Greece (1967-1974)
• Poland (1926-1939, 1981-1983)
• Portugal (1926-1933; civil dictatorship until 1974)
• Romania (1940-1944)
• Spain (1923-1930, 1939-1975)
• Turkey (1960-1961, 1971-1973, 1980-1983)

See also

• The Generals
• Military government
• Military rule (disambiguation)
• Films depicting Latin American military dictatorships
• List of political leaders who held active military ranks in office

Forms of Government and Methods of Rule: Autocratic and Authoritarian
Autocratic	Despotism · Dictatorship · Tyranny · Absolute monarchy · Caliphate · Despotate · Emirate · Empire · Khanate · Sultanate · Other monarchical titles · Enlightened absolutism
Other Authoritarian	Military dictatorship (often a Junta) · Oligarchy · Single-party state (Communist state · Fascist(oid) state) · de facto: Illiberal democracy

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