musk deer

(Moschinae)

Class: Mammalia

Order: Artiodactyla

Family: Cervidae

Subfamily: Moschinae

Thumbnail description
Small-sized deer without antlers, coat color is grizzled brown with whitish yellow spots and stripes on the chest; both males and females have well-developed upper canines; in males, long and protruding as fangs, up to 3 in (7 cm) long; hind legs are longer than forelegs, thus the rump of the body is elevated and withers slope forward; animals move by jumps; males have a musk bag, externally visible near its reproductive organs

Size
Shoulder height: 20.8–31.4 in (53–80 cm); body length: 33.8–39.3 in (86–100 cm); tail length: 1.5–2.3 in (4–6 cm); weight: 22–39.6 lb (10–18 kg)

Number of genera, species
1 genus; 4 species

Habitat
Mountain forest

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 1 species; Lower Risk/Near Threatened: 3 species

Distribution
Confined to the Old World: eastern Asia from the limits of forested zone at 70°N to Myanmar and Himalayas

Evolution and systematics

Musk deer are different from all other deer. They include a combination of primitive features (long tusks, lack of antlers) and advanced features (a four-chambered stomach). Unlike other Cervidae, musk deer have gallbladders. As for other ungulates that feed on concentrated fodder, musk deer are selective in their diet, sedentary, defend their home ranges, their diurnal rhythm of feeding and rest interchange up to 12 times, and they have a high reproductive rate. There are four species of musk deer: Moschus chrysogaster, M. moschiferus, M. berezovskii, and M. fuscus.

Physical characteristics

Musk deer are small-sized deer without antlers. Due to long and strong hind legs and shorter and weaker forelegs, musk deer look asymmetric, with heavy rump, banded back, and sloped withers. The distinctive body construction restricts the movement style of the animals: they walk or jump, and never run. The small head is adorned by a pair of big, sensible, hare-like ears. The muzzle around the black nostrils is hairless. Both sexes have long canines; in males, these tusks are protruding, in females, they are hidden in the mouth. Dewclaws on hooves are nearly the same size as central ones and their prints are visible in tracks.

The preputial gland is a protrusion of preputial skin with a separate opening; it has two layers of glands (inner and outer ones) around the mouth. Secretion starts as males reach the age of 8–9 months, and when males are around 15–16 months old, their sac is full of secretion. The maximum of secretion occurs from May–June, when the sac is filled. In addition, epithelium cells from the inner layer of the sac as well as masses of bacterium mix with the secretion. After short period of ripening, the sac is filled with a strongly odorous, granulated, reddish brown substance. This secretion of the preputial gland induces estrus in females and is very important in the course of mating.

Musk deer have many fragrant glands: on the nose mirror, pre-orbital, tarsal, metatarsal, circum anal, around the tail basement as well as on upper and side tail surfaces, and on the shanks of the hind legs. Secretion of all these glands is important in animal communication, in marking of home range, in individual distinguishing (mostly nasal glands), and in stimulation of a sexual partner.

Distribution

The western edge of their distribution is the Altai Mountains. Eastward from there, musk deer are distributed in the mountains of southern Siberia. Musk deer range expands over the mountain crests of Siberia and eastern Siberia to the shores of the Japan Sea and the Okhotsk Sea. Musk deer are also distributed in China, Korea, Myanmar, and Vietnam; a wide area covers the Himalayas (Bhutan, China, India, and Nepal).

Habitat

Musk deer occur mostly on mountain slopes and on terraces, foothills, in mountain valleys, and on river bank escarpments. There are habitats at altitudes from 1,300–14,400 ft (400–4,400 m). Dense coniferous and broadleaved forests with rich undergrowths are common habitats of musk deer. Solitary rocks or rock pendants with very steep escarpments where musk deer, when necessary, can remain inaccessible to predators.

Behavior

Musk deer live solitarily, sedentary, and they keep strictly to their home ranges year-round, and never migrate. Home range borders are confined to natural margins like ridge crests and rivulets. There are feeding paths, watering places, and resting points, as well as defecation and urination points. Resting places are chosen for their access for their clear views: hilltops, anthill tops, ridge crests. In bad weather, animals take cover under branched trees or under protruding rocks.

They mark home range year-round with the secretion of their nasal and tail glands, by urine and pellets, and by scratching the ground with their hooves, which are also supplied with odorous glands to make scent-marks. Musk deer use the same latrines over and over, only for defecation (never to urinate). Home range includes rocky escarpments (usually small patches to 8–16 in [20–40 cm] wide) that are inaccessible to predators. Otherwise, animals hide in bushy thickets or under sloped trees and in piles of wooden trash. The home range of a male overlaps with home ranges of several does.

During mating season, the musk secretion issued by males in the urine is highly concentrated and marks snow with dark pink or red spots. During the rut (mating season), three or four animals make a group. Males start battles that are not especially fierce.

Musk deer have excellent vision and hearing, though their communication is predominantly by olfaction as they have an acute sense of smell. Once disturbed, musk deer freeze motionless, or jump to escape.

Feeding ecology and diet

Musk deer eat arboreal lichens, forbs, leaves, flowers, moss, needles of conifers shoots, twigs, and grass. They only nibble a small proportion of food at a time, as it minimizes the pressure on vegetation so that they can return to the same feeding place many times. Musk deer can also rise on hind legs or climb on bent trunks to reach leaves.

Reproductive biology

A polygamous group, musk deer have relatively a high reproductive rate, and twins and even triplets are not unusual. The mating season varies with locality and altitude, from November–January. After a gestation of 178–198 days, fawning takes place from May–June. Calves are born in hidden places, and within 25–30 minutes, will suckle its mother for the first time. Newborns will weigh 15.5–16.6 oz (440–470 g). Duration of nursing is three to four months. At the end of this period, a calf is nursed only once every five days. Calves younger than three months remain hidden and do not follow their mother. Young grow quickly; females become sexually mature and capable of breeding in their first year.

Conservation status

Recently, the slaughter of the animal for its musk, which is used in medicine and perfume, has greatly reduced the numbers of Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), a species that used to be very numerous not so long ago. The IUCN lists it as Vulnerable. A high reproductive rate, its hidden mode of life, and breeding at farms has minimized the pressure of hunting. The other three musk deer species are Lower Risk/Near Threatened.

Significance to humans

Musk is highly valued in Chinese medicine, as it is used for the alleged improvement of health, treatment of inflammation, fever, and in the manufacture of soaps and perfumes. For cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, musk can fetch $24,000–45,000 per 2.2 lb (1 kg). Japan annually imports 220 –1,650 lb (100–750 kg) of musk; China 1,100–2,200 lb (500–1,000 kg); Taiwan 77 lb (35 kg); and the Republic of Korea 290 lb (130 kg). Since 1958, many farms have appeared in China where musk deer are bred and musk can be taken from the preputial sac without harm to the animal.

Species accounts

Resources

Baskin, Leonid, and Kjell Danell. Ecology of Ungulates. A Handbook of Species in Eastern Europe, Northern and Central Asia. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 2003.

Bedi, Ramesh. Wildlife of India. New Delhi: Bridgebasi Printers Private Ltd., 1984.

Flerov, Konstantin K. Musk Deer and Deer. Moscow: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1952.

Geist, Valerius. Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behavior, and Ecology. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1998.

Hudson, Robert J., Karl R. Drew, and Leonid M. Baskin. Wildlife Production Systems. Economic Utilization of Wild Ungulates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Schaller, George B. Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.

Sokolov, Vladimir E., and Olga F. Chernova. Skin Glands of Mammals. Moscow: GEOS, 2001.

Sheng, Helin, and Lu Houji. The Mammalian of China. Beijing: China Forestry Publishing, 1999.

[Article by: Leonid Baskin, PhD]

The noun has one meaning:

Meaning #1: small heavy-limbed upland deer of central Asia; male secretes valued musk
  Synonym: Moschus moschiferus

Musk deer Fossil range: Early Miocene–Recent PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
Moschus moschiferus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla Suborder: Ruminantia Infraorder: Pecora Family: Moschidae (Gray, 1821) Genus: Moschus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Species
Moschus chrysogaster - Alpine Musk Deer Moschus moschiferus - Siberian Musk Deer Moschus berezovskii - Dwarf Musk Deer Moschus fuscus - Black Musk Deer Moschus anhuiensis - Anhui Musk Deer Moschus cupreus - Kashmir Musk Deer Moschus leucogaster - White-bellied Musk Deer

Musk deer are artiodactyls of the genus Moschus, the only genus of family Moschidae. They are more primitive than the cervids, or true deer, in not having antlers or facial glands, in having only a single pair of teats, and in possessing a gall bladder, a caudal gland, a pair of tusk-like teeth and—of particular economic importance to humans—a musk gland. Moschids live mainly in forested and alpine scrub habitats in the mountains of southern Asia notably Himalayas.

Contents 1 Characteristics 2 Evolution 3 References 4 External links

Characteristics

Musk deer resemble small deer with a stocky build, and hind legs longer than their front legs. They are approximately 80-100 cm in length, 50-70 cm tall at the shoulder, and weigh between 7 and 17 kg. The feet of musk deer are adapted for climbing in rough terrain. Like the Chinese Water Deer, a cervid, they have no antlers, but the males do have enlarged upper canines, forming sabre-like tusks. The dental formula is similar to that of true deer:

The musk gland is found only in adult males. It lies in a sac located between the genitals and the umbilicus, and its secretions are most likely used to attract mates.

Musk deer are herbivores, living in hilly, forested environments, generally far from human habitation. Like true deer, they eat mainly leaves, flowers, and grasses, with some mosses and lichens. They are solitary animals, and maintain well-defined territories, which they scent mark with their caudal glands. Musk deer are generally shy, and either nocturnal, or crepuscular.

Males leave their territories during the rutting season, and compete for mates, using their tusks as weapons. Female musk deer give birth to a single fawn after about 150-180 days. The newborn young are very small, and essentially motionless for the first month of their life, a feature that helps them remain hidden from predators.^[1]

Evolution

Reconstruction of the extinct genus Micromeryx

The musk deers might be a surviving representative of the Palaeomerycidae, a family of ruminants that is probably ancestral to deers. They first appeared in the early Oligocene epoch and disappeared in the Pliocene. Most species lacked antlers, though some were found in later species. The musk deers are however still placed in a separate family.

References

1. ^ Frädrich, Hans (1984). Macdonald, D.. ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 518–519. ISBN 0-87196-871-1. 

External links

• Guha S, Goyal SP, Kashyap VK. (2007). Molecular phylogeny of musk deer(KASTURI MIRG): A genomic view with mitochondrial 16S rRNA and cytochrome b gene.Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2007 Mar;42(3):585-97.PMID: 17158073. [1]

• Hassanin A, Douzery EJ.(2003. Molecular and morphological phylogenies of ruminantia and the alternative position of the moschidae. Syst Biol. 2003 Apr;52(2):206-28. PMID: 12746147. [2]

• The New Student's Reference Work/Musk-Deer

v • d • e Extant Artiodactyla species Kingdom: Animalia · Phylum: Chordata · Class: Mammalia · Infraclass: Eutheria · Superorder: Laurasiatheria   Suborder Ruminantia Antilocapridae Antilocapra Pronghorn (A. americana) Giraffidae Okapia Okapi (O. johnstoni) Giraffa Giraffe (G. camelopardalis) Moschidae Moschus Himalayan Musk Deer (M. chrysogaster) · Siberian Musk Deer (M. moschiferus) · Dwarf Musk Deer (M. berezovskii) · Black Musk Deer (M. fuscus) Tragulidae Hyemoschus Water Chevrotain (H. aquaticus) Moschiola Indian Spotted Chevrotain (M. meminna) · M. kathygre Tragulus Java Mouse-deer (T. javanicus) · Lesser Mouse-deer (T. kanchil) · Greater Mouse-deer (T. napu) · Philippine Mouse-deer (T. nigricans) · Vietnam Mouse-deer (T. versicolor) · Williamson's Mouse-deer (T. williamsoni) Cervidae Large family listed below Bovidae Large family listed below   Family Cervidae Muntiacinae Muntiacus Indian Muntjac (M. muntjak) · Reeves's Muntjac (M. reevesi) · Hairy-fronted Muntjac (M. crinifrons) · Fea's Muntjac (M. feae) · Bornean Yellow Muntjac (M. atherodes) · Roosevelt's muntjac (M. rooseveltorum) · Gongshan muntjac (M. gongshanensis) · Giant Muntjac (M. vuquangensis) · Truong Son Muntjac (M. truongsonensis) · Leaf muntjac (M. putaoensis) Elaphodus Tufted deer (E. cephalophus) Cervinae Cervus Red Deer (C. elaphus) · Elk (C. canadensis) · Thorold's deer (C. albirostris) · Sika Deer (C. nippon) · Barasingha (C. duvaucelii) · Eld's Deer (C. eldii) · Sambar Deer (C. unicolor) · Rusa Deer (C. timorensis) · Philippine Sambar (C. mariannus) · Philippine Spotted Deer (C. alfredi) Axis Chital (A. axis) · Hog deer (A. porcinus) · Calamian Deer (A. calamianensis) · Bawean Deer (A. kuhlii) Elaphurus Père David's Deer (E. davidianus) Dama Fallow Deer (D. dama) · Persian fallow deer (D. mesopotamica) Hydropotinae Hydropotes Water deer (H. inermis) Capreolinae Odocoileus White-tailed deer (O. virginianus) · Mule deer (O. hemionus) Blastocerus Marsh Deer (B. dichotomus) Ozotoceros Pampas deer (O. bezoarticus) Mazama Red Brocket (M. americana) · Small Red Brocket (M. bororo) · Merida Brocket (M. bricenii) · Dwarf Brocket (M. chunyi) · Gray Brocket (M. gouazoubira) · Pygmy Brocket (M. nana) · Fair Brocket (M. ochroleuca) · Yucatan Brown Brocket (M. pandora) · Little Red Brocket (M. rufina) · Central American Red Brocket (M. temama) Pudu Northern Pudu (P. mephistophiles) · Pudú (P. pudu) Hippocamelus Taruca (H. antisensis) · South Andean Deer (H. bisulcus) Capreolus Roe Deer (C. capreolus) · Siberian Roe Deer (C. pygargus) Rangifer Reindeer (R. tarandus) Alces Moose (A. alces)   Family Bovidae Cephalophinae Cephalophus Abbott's Duiker (C. spadix) · Aders' Duiker (C. adersi) · Bay Duiker (C. dorsalis) · Black Duiker (C. niger) · Black-fronted Duiker (C. nigrifrons) · Blue Duiker (C. monticola) · Harvey's Duiker (C. harveyi) · Jentink's Duiker (C. jentinki) · Maxwell's Duiker (C. maxwellii) · Red Forest Duiker (C. natalensis) · Ogilby's Duiker (C. ogilbyi) · Peters's Duiker (C. callipygus) · Red-flanked Duiker (C. rufilatus) · Ruwenzori Duiker (C. rubidis) · Weyns's Duiker (C. weynsi) · White-bellied Duiker (C. leucogaster) · Yellow-backed Duiker (C. Sylvicultor) · Zebra Duiker (C. zebra) Sylvicapra Common Duiker (S. grimmia) Hippotraginae Hippotragus Roan Antelope (H. equinus) · Sable Antelope (H. niger) Oryx East African Oryx (O. beisa) · Scimitar Oryx (O. dammah) · Gemsbok (O. gazella) · Arabian Oryx (O. leucoryx) Addax Addax (A. nasomaculatus) Reduncinae Kobus Upemba Lechwe (K. anselli) · Waterbuck (K. ellipsiprymnus) · Kob (K. kob) · Lechwe (K. leche) · Nile Lechwe (K. megaceros) · Puku (K. vardonii) Redunca Southern Reedbuck (R. arundinum) · Mountain Reedbuck (R. fulvorufula) · Bohor Reedbuck (R. redunca) Aepycerotinae Aepyceros Impala (A. melampus) Peleinae Pelea Grey Rhebok (P. capreolus) Alcelaphinae Beatragus Hirola (B. hunteri) Damaliscus Korrigum (D. korrigum) · Common Tsessebe (D. lunatus) · Bontebok (D. pygargus) · Bangweulu Tsessebe (D. superstes) Alcelaphus Hartebeest (A. buselaphus) · Red Hartebeest (A. caama) · Lichtenstein's Hartebeest (A. lichtensteinii) Connochaetes Black Wildebeest (C. gnou) · Blue Wildebeest (C. taurinus) Pantholopinae Pantholops Tibetan antelope (P. hodgsonii) Caprinae Large subfamily listed below Bovinae Large subfamily listed below Antilopinae Large subfamily listed below   Family Bovidae (subfamily Caprinae) Ammotragus Barbary Sheep (A. lervia) Budorcas Takin (B. taxicolor) Capra Wild goat (C. aegagrus) · West Caucasian Tur (C. caucasia) · East Caucasian Tur (C. cylindricornis) · Markhor (C. falconeri) · Alpine Ibex (C. ibex) · Nubian Ibex (C. nubiana) · Spanish Ibex (C. pyrenaica) · Siberian Ibex (C. sibirica) · Walia Ibex (C. walie) Hemitragus Nilgiri Tahr (H. hylocrius) · Arabian Tahr (H. jayakari) · Himalayan Tahr (H. jemlahicus) Naemorhedus Red Goral (N. baileyi) · Japanese Serow (N. crispus) · Long-tailed Goral (N. caudatus) · Gray Goral (N. goral) · Mainland Serow (N. sumatraensis) · Taiwan Serow (N. swinhoei) Oreamnos Mountain goat (O. americanus) Ovibos Muskox (O. moschatus) Ovis Argali (O. ammon) · Domestic sheep (O. aries) · Bighorn Sheep (O. canadensis) · Dall Sheep (O. dalli) · Mouflon (O. musimon) · Snow sheep (O. nivicola) · Urial (O. orientalis) Pseudois Bharal (P. nayaur) · Dwarf Blue Sheep (P. schaeferi) Rupicapra Pyrenean Chamois (R. pyrenaica) · Chamois (R. rupicapra)   Family Bovidae (subfamily Bovinae) Boselaphini Tetracerus Four-horned Antelope (T. quadricornis) Boselaphus Nilgai (B. tragocamelus) Bovini Bubalus Water Buffalo (B. bubalus) · Lowland Anoa (B. depressicornis) · Mountain Anoa (B. quarlesi) · Tamaraw (B. mindorensis) Bos Banteng (B. javanicus) · Gaur (B. gaurus) · Yak (B. mutus) · Cattle (B. taurus) · Kouprey (B. sauveli) Pseudonovibos Kting Voar (P. spiralis) Pseudoryx Saola (P. nghetinhensis) Syncerus African Buffalo (S. caffer) Bison American Bison (B. bison) · Wisent (B. bonasus) Strepsicerotini Tragelaphus Sitatunga (T. spekeii) · Nyala (T. angasii) · Bushbuck (T. scriptus) · Mountain Nyala (T. buxtoni) · Lesser Kudu (T. imberbis) · Greater Kudu (T. strepsiceros) · Bongo (T. eurycerus) Taurotragus Common Eland (T. oryx) · Giant Eland (T. derbianus)   Family Bovidae (subfamily Antilopinae) Antilopini Ammodorcas Dibatag (A. clarkei) Antidorcas Springbok (A. marsupialis) Antilope Blackbuck (A. cervicapra) Gazella Mountain Gazelle (G. gazella) · Neumann's Gazelle (G. erlangeri) · Speke's Gazelle (G. spekei) · Dorcas Gazelle (G. dorcas) · Saudi Gazelle (G. saudiya) · Chinkara (G. bennettii) · Thomson's Gazelle (G. thomsonii) · Red-fronted Gazelle (G. rufifrons) · Dama Gazelle (G. dama) · Grant's Gazelle (G. granti) · Soemmerring's Gazelle (G. soemmerringii) · Cuvier's Gazelle (G. cuvieri) · Rhim Gazelle (G. leptoceros) · Goitered Gazelle (G. subgutturosa) Litocranius Gerenuk (L. walleri) Procapra Mongolian gazelle (P. gutturosa) · Goa (P. picticaudata) · Przewalski's Gazelle (P. przewalskii) Saigini Pantholops Tibetan antelope (P. hodgsonii) Saiga Saiga Antelope (S. tatarica) Neotragini Dorcatragus Beira (D. megalotis) Madoqua Günther's Dik-dik (M. guentheri) · Kirk's Dik-dik (M. kirkii) · Silver Dik-dik (M. piacentinii) · Salt's Dik-dik (M. saltiana) Neotragus Bates's Pygmy Antelope (N. batesi) · Suni (N. moschatus) · Royal Antelope (N. pygmaeus) Oreotragus Klipspringer (O. oreotragus) Ourebia Oribi (O. ourebi) Raphicerus Steenbok (R. campestris) · Cape Grysbok (R. melanotis) · Sharpe's Grysbok (R. sharpei)   Suborder Suina Suidae Babyrousa Buru Babirusa (B. babyrussa) · North Sulawesi Babirusa (B. celebensis) · Togian Babirusa (B. togeanensis) Hylochoerus Giant forest hog (H. meinertzhageni) Phacochoerus Desert Warthog (P. aethiopicus) · Warthog (P. africanus) Porcula Pygmy Hog (P. salvania) Potamochoerus Bushpig (P. larvatus) · Red River Hog (P. porcus) Sus Palawan Bearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) · Bearded Pig (S. barbatus) · Indo-chinese Warty Pig (S. bucculentus) · Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) · Celebes Warty Pig (S. celebensis) · Flores Warty Pig (S. heureni) · Oliver's Warty Pig (S. oliveri) · Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) · Boar (S. scrofa) · Timor Warty Pig (S. timoriensis) · Javan Pig (S. verrucosus) Tayassuidae Tayassu White-lipped Peccary (T. pecari) Catagonus Chacoan Peccary (C. wagneri) Pecari Collared Peccary (P. tajacu) · Giant Peccary (P. maximus)   Suborder Tylopoda Camelidae Lama Llama (L. glama) · Guanaco (L. guanicoe) Vicugna Vicuña (V. vicugna) · Alpaca (V. pacos) Camelus Dromedary (C. dromedarius) · Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus)   Cetartiodactyla (unranked clade, higher than Artiodactyla) Hippopotamidae Hippopotamus Hippopotamus (H. amphibius) Choeropsis Pygmy Hippopotamus (C. liberiensis)

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